Chi-square test: Analysis of contingency tables
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Fisher's exact test was used rather than the chi-square approximation because of the small sample size and expected cell counts below five.
“Given the small sample size and expected cell counts of below five, we used Fisher’s exact test rather than the chi-square approximation (Howell, 2011), calculated using base R (R Core Team, 2025).”
From Participatory Co-Design and Evaluation of a Novel Approach to Generative AI-Integrated Coursework Assessment in Higher Education (2025) · cites this paper as Howell, 2011
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Chi-squared and Fisher-Irwin tests of two-by-two tables with small sample recommendations
Campbell, I. (2007) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.2832 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
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Martin, A. F., Tubaltseva, S., Harrison, A., & Rubin, G. J. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060808 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Given the small sample size and expected cell counts of below five, we used Fisher’s exact test rather than the chi-square approximation (Howell, 2011), calculated using base R (R Core Team, 2025).”
- Authors
- Howell, D. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Vermont (US)
- Corresponding author
- Howell, David C.
- Venue
- International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science
- Publisher
- Springer Berlin Heidelberg
- Published
- 2011
- Pages
- 250-252
- OpenAlex
- W60541956
- Cited by
- 108
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 3
- Type
- reference entry
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Probability and Statistical Research
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Distribution Estimation and Applications
- Keywords
- chi-square test, contingency tables, chi-square distribution, hypothesis testing, categorical data analysis
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