Chi-squared and Fisher-Irwin tests of two-by-two tables with small sample recommendations
Abstract
Two-by-two tables commonly arise in comparative trials and cross-sectional studies. In medical studies, two-by-two tables may have a small sample size due to the rarity of a condition, or to limited resources. Current recommendations on the appropriate statistical test mostly specify the chi-squared test for tables where the minimum expected number is at least 5 (following Fisher and Cochran), and otherwise the Fisher-Irwin test; but there is disagreement on which versions of the chi-squared and Fisher-Irwin tests should be used. A further uncertainty is that, according to Cochran, the number 5 was chosen arbitrarily. Computer-intensive techniques were used in this study to compare seven two-sided tests of two-by-two tables in terms of their Type I errors. The tests were K. Pearson's and Yates's chi-squared tests and the 'N-1' chi-squared test (first proposed by E. Pearson), together with four versions of the Fisher-Irwin test (including two mid-P versions). The optimum test policy was found to be analysis by the 'N-1' chi-squared test when the minimum expected number is at least 1, and otherwise, by the Fisher-Irwin test by Irwin's rule (taking the total probability of tables in either tail that are as likely as, or less likely than the one observed). This policy was found to have increased power compared to Cochran's recommendations.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
There was no significant difference in dropouts between the groups (χ2 = .38, df = 1, p = .5).
“There was no significant difference in dropouts between the groups (χ2 = .38,df = 1, p = .5)using 'N-1' chi-squared test as recommended by (Campbell, 2007).”
From Effects of mindfulness meditation and Acceptance and commitment therapy in patients with obstructive sleep apnea with residual excessive sleepiness: A randomized controlled pilot study (2023) · cites this paper as Campbell, 2007
Cites
Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions
Fleiss, J. L., Levin, B., & Paik, M. C. (2003) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471445428 · Cited by 18,646 · see citing works
Pearson, K. (1900) · The London Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science · doi:10.1080/14786440009463897 · Cited by 4,134 · see citing works
Some Methods for Strengthening the Common χ 2 Tests
Cochran, W. G. (1954) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/3001616 · Cited by 3,718 · see citing works
On the Interpretation of χ 2 from Contingency Tables, and the Calculation of P
Fisher, R. A. (1922) · Journal Of The Royal Statistical Society · doi:10.2307/2340521 · Cited by 2,975 · see citing works
Kendall's Advanced Theory of Statistics.
Aa, Stuart, A., & Ord, K. (1995) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2291187 · Cited by 2,657 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions.
Plewis, I., & Fleiss, J. L. (1982) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2982107 · Cited by 1,748 · see citing works
Statistical Methods in Medical Research
Armitage, P., Berry, G., & Matthews, J. N. S. (2002) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470773666 · Cited by 1,638 · see citing works
Kendall's Advanced Theory of Statistics.
Kemp, A. W., Stuart, A., & Ord, J. K. (1994) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348968 · Cited by 1,377 · see citing works
Contingency Tables Involving Small Numbers and the χ2 Test
Yates, F. (1934) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.2307/2983604 · Cited by 1,283 · see citing works
The $\chi^2$ Test of Goodness of Fit
Cochran, W. G. (1952) · The Annals of Mathematical Statistics · doi:10.1214/aoms/1177729380 · Cited by 1,111 · see citing works
124: The Logic of Inductive Inference.
Fisher, R. A. (1935) · Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) · Cited by 872 · see citing works
Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 4th edn
Purdie, D. (2003) · Internal Medicine Journal · doi:10.1046/j.1445-5994.2002.00319.x · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Test of Significance for 2 × 2 Contingency Tables
Yates, F. (1984) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2981577 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
SIGNIFICANCE TESTS FOR 2×2 TABLES
Barnard, G. A. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/34.1-2.123 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Exact Unconditional Sample Sizes for the 2 × 2 Binomial Trial
Suissa, S., & Shuster, J. J. (1985) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2981892 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Roscoe, J. T., & Byars, J. A. (1971) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1971.10482341 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Applicability of chi-square to 2 × 2 contingency tables with small expected cell frequencies.
Camilli, G., & Hopkins, K. D. (1978) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.1.163 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
On the Interpretation of χ 2 from Contingency Tables, and the Calculation of P
Fisher, R. A. (2018) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1111/j.2397-2335.1922.tb00768.x · Cited by 218 · see citing works
D'agostino, R. B., Chase, W., & Belanger, A. (1988) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1988.10475563 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
A Comparison of Alternative Tests for the 2 × 2 Comparative Trial
UPTON, G. J. G. (1982) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2981423 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
THE CHOICE OF STATISTICAL TESTS ILLUSTRATED ON THE INTERPRETATION OF DATA CLASSED IN A 2×2 TABLE
Pearson, E. S. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/34.1-2.139 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Exact Properties of Some Exact Test Statistics for Comparing Two Binomial Proportions
Storer, B. E., & Kim, C. (1990) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1990.10475318 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Mid-P Confidence Intervals: A Brief Review
Berry, G., & Armitage, P. (1995) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348891 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
THE MEANING OF A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL
Barnard, G. A. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/34.1-2.179 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
XIII. Electric and magnetic spectroscopy
Arkadiew, W. (1925) · The London Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science · doi:10.1080/14786442508634724 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
In dispraise of the exact test
Berkson, J. (1978) · Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference · doi:10.1016/0378-3758(78)90019-8 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Significance Tests for 2 × 2 Tables
Barnard, G. A. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2332517 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
A quasi‐exact test for comparing two binomial proportions
Hirji, K. F., Tan, S., & Elashoff, R. M. (1991) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780100713 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Continuity Correction in the χ 2 -Test for 2 × 2 Tables
Grizzle, J. E. (1967) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2682103 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
On alleged gains in power from lowerP‐values
Barnard, G. A. (1989) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780081206 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Testing for association in 2 × 2 contingency tables with very small sample sizes.
Camilli, G., & Hopkins, K. D. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.1011 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
D'agostino, R. B., Chase, W., & Belanger, A. (1988) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2685002 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
The Choice of Statistical Tests Illustrated on the Interpretation of Data Classed in a 2 × 2 Table
Pearson, E. S. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2332518 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The continuity correction in 2×2 tables
Plackett, R. L. (1964) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/51.3-4.327 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Grizzle, J. E. (1967) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1967.10479835 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
In dispraise of the exact test: reactions
Kempthorne, O. (1979) · Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference · doi:10.1016/0378-3758(79)90012-0 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
A sample size correction for Pearson chi-square in 2 × 2 contingency tables.
Rhoades, H. M., & Overall, J. E. (1982) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.91.2.418 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Monte Carlo simulations and the chi-square test of independence
Bradley, D. R., & Cutcomb, S. D. (1977) · Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation · doi:10.3758/bf03214499 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
AN OPTIMALITY THEORY FOR MID p-VALUES IN 2 × 2 CONTINGENCY TABLES
Hwang, J. T. G., & Yang, M. (2001) · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Sahai, H., & Khurshid, A. (1995) · Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1080/10543409508835098 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Garside, G. R., & Mack, C. (1976) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1976.10479127 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The analysis of 2 × 1 and 2 × 2 contingency tables: an historical review
Richardson, J. T. E. (1994) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/096228029400300202 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
An exact unconditional test for the 2 × 2 comparative trial.
Haber, M. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.129 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
An exact unconditional test for the 2 × 2 comparative trial.
Haber, M. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.99.1.129 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Comparing two independent binomial proportions by a modified chi square test
Schouten, H. J. A., Molenaar, I., STRIK, R. V., & Boomsma, A. (1980) · Biometrical Journal · doi:10.1002/bimj.4710220305 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Small-sample tests for homogeneity of response probabilities in 2 × 2 contingency tables.
Overall, J. E., Rhoades, H. M., & Starbuck, R. R. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.2.307 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Variants of chi‐square for 2 × 2 contingency tables
Richardson, J. T. E. (1990) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1990.tb00943.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Barnard, G. A., & Gani, J. (1984) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2981596 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Continuity Correction in 2 × 2 Tables
Plackett, R. L. (1964) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2334138 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Berkson, J. (1978) · Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference · doi:10.1016/0378-3758(78)90020-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Fisher's Exact Test: The Marginal Totals as Seen from Two Different Angles
Cormack, R. S., & Mantel, N. (1991) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348221 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
2×2 TABLES. A NOTE ON E. S. PEARSON'S PAPER
Barnard, G. A. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/34.1-2.168 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Garside, G. R., & Mack, C. (1976) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2682881 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A Role of Time-Sharing Computing in Statistical Research
Kurtz, T. E. (1968) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1968.10480512 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
2 × 2 Tables. A Note on E. S. Pearson's Paper
Barnard, G. A. (1947) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2332519 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Role of Time-Sharing Computing in Statistical Research
Kurtz, T. E. (1968) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2681833 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine
(2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmc2036242 · Cited by 831 · see citing works
The invisible addiction: Cell-phone activities and addiction among male and female college students
Roberts, J., Yaya, L., & Manolis, C. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/jba.3.2014.015 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
Arevalo, H., Vadakkumpadan, F., Güallar, E., Jebb, A., Malamas, P., Wu, K. C., & Trayanova, N. A. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms11437 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Plastic ingestion by mesopelagic fishes in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
Davison, P., & Asch, R. G. (2011) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps09142 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Bandi, N., Zbinden, S., Gugger, M., Arnold, M., Kocher, V., Hasan, L., Каппелер, А., Brunner, T., & Vassella, E. (2009) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-4277 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Leitinger, M., Trinka, E., Gardella, E., Rohracher, A., Kalss, G., Qerama, E., Höfler, J., Heß, A., Zimmermann, G., Kuchukhidze, G., et al. (2016) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(16)30137-5 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Inclusive AI literacy for kids around the world
Druga, S., Vu, S. T., Likhith, E., & Qiu, T. (2019) · Proceedings of FabLearn 2019 · doi:10.1145/3311890.3311904 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Usability: Lessons Learned … and Yet to Be Learned
Lewis, J. R. (2014) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2014.930311 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Performance of an Artificial Intelligence Chatbot in Ophthalmic Knowledge Assessment
Mihalache, A., Popovic, M. M., & Muni, R. H. (2023) · JAMA Ophthalmology · doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2023.1144 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
The analysis of 2 × 2 contingency tables—Yet again
Richardson, J. T. E. (2011) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4116 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Orthotopic patient-derived xenografts of paediatric solid tumours
Stewart, E., Federico, S. M., Chen, X., Shelat, A. A., Bradley, C., Gordon, B., Karlstrom, A., Twarog, N. R., Clay, M. R., Bahrami, A., et al. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature23647 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Asch, R. G. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1421946112 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Short-term clinical outcomes for stages of NIA-AA preclinical Alzheimer disease
Knopman, D. S., Jack, C. R., Wiste, H. J., Weigand, S. D., Vemuri, P., Lowe, V. J., Kantarci, K., Gunter, J. L., Senjem, M. L., Ivnik, R. J., et al. (2012) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3182563bbe · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Hickey, G. L., Dunning, J., Seifert, B., Sodeck, G. H., Carr, M., Burger, H. U., & Beyersdorf, F. (2015) · European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery · doi:10.1093/ejcts/ezv168 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
COVID-19 in health care workers – A systematic review and meta-analysis
Sahu, A. K., Amrithanand, V. T., Mathew, R., Aggarwal, P., Nayer, J., & Bhoi, S. K. (2020) · The American Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2020.05.113 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Papatheodoridi, Μ., Hiriart, J., Lupșor‐Platon, M., Bronte, F., Boursier, J., Elshaarawy, O., Marra, F., Thiele, M. S., Markakis, G., Payancé, A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2020.11.050 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
A biobank of patient-derived pediatric brain tumor models
Brabetz, S., Leary, S. E. S., Gröbner, S. N., Nakamoto, M. W., Seker‐Cin, H., Girard, E. J., Cole, B., Strand, A. D., Bloom, K., Hovestadt, V., et al. (2018) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0207-3 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Tariq, R., Pardi, D. S., Bartlett, M. G., & Khanna, S. (2018) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciy721 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Crosta, A. D., Palumbo, R., Marchetti, D., Ceccato, I., Malva, P. L., Maiella, R., Cipi, M., Roma, P., Mammarella, N., Verrocchio, M., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567367 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Larson, L. R., Cooper, C. B., Futch, S., Singh, D., Shipley, N. J., Dale, K., LeBaron, G. S., & Takekawa, J. Y. (2020) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108428 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
LeDoux, T. F., & Vojnovic, I. (2012) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.09.010 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Jenkins, N. L., James, S., Salim, A., Sumardy, F., Speed, T. P., Conrad, M., Richardson, D. R., Bush, A. I., & McColl, G. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.56580 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Routes of Extraocular Extension of Uveal Melanoma
Coupland, S. E., Campbell, I., & Damato, B. E. (2008) · Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.04.025 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Tsaousis, G., Papadopoulou, E., Apessos, A., Αγιαννιτόπουλος, Κ., Pepe, G., Kampouri, S., Diamantopoulos, N., Floros, T., Iosifidou, R., Katopodi, O., et al. (2019) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-019-5756-4 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Stroke Risk and Risk Factors in Patients With Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
Lavin, P., Patrylo, M., Hollar, M. W., Espaillat, K. B., Kirshner, H. S., & Schrag, M. (2018) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2018.08.027 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Carstensen, S., Nelson, G. C. I., HANSEN, P. S., Macken, L., Irons, S., Flynn, M., Kovoor, P., Hoo, S. Y. S., Ward, M. R., & Rasmussen, H. (2007) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm306 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Comparing baseline characteristics between groups: an introduction to the CBCgrps package
Zhang, Z., Gayle, A. A., Wang, J., Zhang, H., & Cardinal‐Fernández, P. (2017) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm.2017.09.39 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Intravenous Fibrinolysis for Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
Grory, B. M., Nackenoff, A. G., Poli, S., Spitzer, M. S., Nedelmann, M., Guillon, B., Preterre, C., Chen, C. S., Lee, A. W., Yaghi, S. R., et al. (2020) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.119.028743 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Perkins, J. B., Field, T. L., Kim, J., Kharfan‐Dabaja, M. A., Fernandez, H. F., Ayala, E., Perez, L. E., Mian, X., Alsina, M., Ochoa, L., et al. (2010) · Transplantation and Cellular Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.bbmt.2010.01.010 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Nawabi, H., Belin, S., Cartoni, R., Williams, P. R., Wang, C., Latrémolière, A., Wang, X., Zhu, J., Taub, D. G., Fu, X., et al. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.10.005 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Stereotypes in Context: How and When Do Street‐Level Bureaucrats Use Class Stereotypes?
Harrits, G. S. (2018) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.12952 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Shen, H., Yoneda, S., Abu‐Amer, Y., Guilak, F., & Gelberman, R. H. (2019) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.24406 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Mihalache, A., Huang, R. S., Popovic, M. M., & Muni, R. H. (2023) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2023.2249588 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Bodian, D. L., McCutcheon, J. N., Kothiyal, P., Huddleston, K., Iyer, R. K., Vockley, J. G., & Niederhuber, J. E. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094554 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Hong Kong female’s breast cancer awareness measure: Cross-sectional survey
Yeung, M. P. S., Chan, E. Y. Y., Wong, S. Y. S., Yip, B. H. K., & Cheung, P. S. Y. (2019) · World Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.5306/wjco.v10.i2.98 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Prati, G. (2020) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2020.1861253 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Chi-square test: Analysis of contingency tables
Howell, D. C. (2011) · International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04898-2_174 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
McRae, M. P., Simmons, G. W., Christodoulides, N. J., Lu, Z., Kang, S. K., Fenyö, D., Alcorn, T. M., Dapkins, I. P., Sharif, I., Vurmaz, D., et al. (2020) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/d0lc00373e · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Identification of diverse target RNAs that are functionally regulated by human Pumilio proteins
Bohn, J., Etten, J. L. V., Schagat, T., Bowman, B. M., McEachin, R., Freddolino, L., & Goldstrohm, A. (2017) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkx1120 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Nie, L., Wei, Y., Zhang, F., Hsu, Y.-H. E., Chan, L.-C., Xia, W., Ke, B., Zhu, C., Deng, R., Tang, J., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13105-5 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Johnson, J. R., Porter, S. B., Johnston, B., Kuskowski, M. A., Spurbeck, R. R., Mobley, H. L. T., & Williamson, D. A. (2015) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofv083 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Rosenfeld, J. P., Hu, X., Labkovsky, E., Meixner, J. B., & Winograd, M. R. (2013) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.08.012 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Distinguishing Ménétrier's disease from its mimics
Rich, A. E., Toro, T. Z., Tanksley, J., Fiske, W. H., Lind, C. D., Ayers, G. D., Piessevaux, H. H., Washington, M. K., & Coffey, R. J. (2010) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gut.2010.220061 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Badawi, A. F., Velummailum, R., Ryoo, S. G., Senthinathan, A., Yaghoubi, S., Vasileva, D., Ostermeier, E., Plishka, M., Soosaipillai, M., & Arora, P. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200200 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Current treatment of central retinal artery occlusion: a national survey
Youn, T. S., Lavin, P., Patrylo, M., Schindler, J., Kirshner, H. S., Greer, D. M., & Schrag, M. (2017) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-017-8702-x · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Coping With Crisis: Green Space Use in Helsinki Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Korpilo, S., Kajosaari, A., Rinne, T. E., Hasanzadeh, K., Raymond, C. M., & Kyttä, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Sustainable Cities · doi:10.3389/frsc.2021.713977 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
de Moura, D. T. H., McCarty, T. R., Jirapinyo, P., Ribeiro, I. B., Flumignan, V. K., Najdawai, F., Ryou, M. K., Lee, L. S., & Thompson, C. C. (2020) · Gastrointestinal Endoscopy · doi:10.1016/j.gie.2020.02.021 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Czarnecka, A. M., Krawczyk, T., Zdrożny, M., Lubiński, J., Arnold, R. S., Kukwa, W., Ścińska, A., Golik, P., Bartnik, E., & Petros, J. A. (2009) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-009-0358-5 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
An HMI Concept to Improve Driver's Visual Behavior and Situation Awareness in Automated Vehicle
Yang, Y., Karakaya, B., Dominioni, G. C., Kawabe, K., & Bengler, K. J. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC) · doi:10.1109/itsc.2018.8569986 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Pastis, N. J., Hill, N. T., Yarmus, L. B., Schippers, F., Imre, M., Sohngen, W., Randall, O., Callahan, S. P., & Silvestri, G. A. (2021) · Journal of Bronchology & Interventional Pulmonology · doi:10.1097/lbr.0000000000000784 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Johnson, J. R., Porter, S. B., THURAS, P. D., & Castanheira, M. (2017) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofx089 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Fleming, P., McGilloway, S., Hernon, M., Furlong, M., O’Doherty, S., Keogh, F., & Stainton, T. (2019) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.4073/csr.2019.3 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Cerebral Resistance Index is less predictive in hypothermic encephalopathic newborns
Elstad, M., Whitelaw, A., & Thoresen, M. (2011) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02327.x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
At-risk and intervention thresholds of occupational stress using a visual analogue scale
Dutheil, F., Pereira, B., Moustafa, F., Naughton, G. A., Lesage, F., & Lambert, C. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0178948 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Preventive Antiepileptic Treatment in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: A Long-Term, Prospective Trial
Jóźwiak, S., Słowińska, M., Borkowska, J., Sadowski, K., Łojszczyk, B., Domańska‐Pakieła, D., Chmielewski, D., Kaczorowska, M., Głowacka, J., Sijko, K., et al. (2019) · Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.07.008 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Janssen, J.-C., Meißner, S., Woythal, N., Prasad, V., Brenner, W., Diederichs, G., Hamm, B., & Makowski, M. R. (2017) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-017-4994-6 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Pulmonary embolism in patients with COVID-19 and value of D-dimer assessment: a meta-analysis
Kwee, R. M., Adams, H. J. A., & Kwee, T. C. (2021) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-021-08003-8 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Merritt, C., Menon, K., Agus, M. S. D., Choong, K. L. M., McNally, D., O’Hearn, K., Watson, R. S., Wong, H. R., Duffett, M., Wypij, D., et al. (2018) · Pediatric Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/pcc.0000000000001409 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Wilson, K. L., Kay, L. M., Schmidt, A. L., & Lotze, H. K. (2015) · Marine Biology · doi:10.1007/s00227-015-2769-7 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Jones, H. G. (2020) · AoB Plants · doi:10.1093/aobpla/plaa052 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Skranes, J. H., Løhaugen, G. C. C., Schumacher, E. M., Osredkar, D., Server, A., Cowan, F. M., Stiris, T., Fugelseth, D., & Thoresen, M. (2017) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.04.041 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Montero-Astúa, M., Ullman, D. E., & Whitfield, A. E. (2016) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2016.03.003 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Carrillo, F. A. B., Collado, D., Sánchez, N., Ojeda, S., Mercado, B. L., Burger‐Calderon, R., Gresh, L., Gordon, A. L., Balmaseda, Á., Kuan, G. M., et al. (2018) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01622-18 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Emotions of COVID-19: Content Analysis of Self-Reported Information Using Artificial Intelligence
Adikari, A., Nawaratne, R., Silva, D. D., Ranasinghe, S., Alahakoon, O., & Alahakoon, D. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/27341 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Johnson, J. R., Johnston, B., Kuskowski, M. A., Sokurenko, E. V., & Tchesnokova, V. L. (2015) · Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy · doi:10.1128/aac.00673-15 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Bramer, L., White, A. M., Stratton, K. G., Thompson, A. M., Claborne, D. M., Hofmockel, K., & McCue, L. A. (2020) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007654 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Yazdanpanah, M., Moghadam, M. T., Savari, M., Zobeidi, T., Sieber, S., & Löhr, K. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105310 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Levels of Reading Comprehension in Higher Education: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Álvarez, C. D. L. P., & Rojas, M. J. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712901 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Dalessandri, D., Zotti, F., Laffranchi, L., Migliorati, M., Isola, G., Bonetti, S., & Visconti, L. (2019) · BMC Oral Health · doi:10.1186/s12903-019-0850-1 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Ketosis and bipolar disorder: controlled analytic study of online reports
Campbell, I. H., & Campbell, H. J. (2019) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2019.49 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Barquera, R., Hernández-Zaragoza, D. I., Bravo-Acevedo, A., Arrieta‐Bolaños, E., Clayton, S., Acuña-Alonzo, V., Martínez-Álvarez, J. C., López-Gil, C., Adalid-Sáinz, C., Vega-Martínez, M. D. R., et al. (2020) · Human Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2020.06.008 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Marincola, G., Gallo, C., Hassan, C., Sessa, L., Raffaelli, M., Costamagna, G., Bove, V., Pontecorvi, V., Orlandini, B., & Boškoski, I. (2021) · Endoscopy International Open · doi:10.1055/a-1300-1085 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Oral health of the Paleoamericans of Lagoa Santa, central Brazil
Da‐Gloria, P., & Larsen, C. S. (2014) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22467 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Joly, Y., Dalpé, G., So, D. F., & Birko, S. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129893 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Krmpotich, T., Mikulich-Gilbertson, S., Sakai, J., Thompson, L., Banich, M. T., & Tanabe, J. (2015) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000129 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
D’Cruz, R. T., Leong, S. W., Syn, N. L. X., Tiwari, A., Sannasi, V. V., Sidhu, H. R. S., & Tang, T. Y. (2018) · The Journal of Vascular Access · doi:10.1177/1129729818814466 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Repeated leftover serosurvey of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies, Greece, March and April 2020
Bogogiannidou, Z., Vontas, A., Dadouli, K., Kyritsi, M. A., Soteriades, S., Nikoulis, D. J., Mouchtouri, V. Α., Koureas, M., Kazakos, E. I., Spanos, E., et al. (2020) · Eurosurveillance · doi:10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.31.2001369 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Sosa, N. R., Capitan‐Barrios, Z., Nieto, J., Nieto, M., Calzada, J. E., Paz, H. M. P., Spadafora, C., Kreishman-Deitrick, M., Kopydlowski, K. M., Ullman, D. R., et al. (2013) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.12-0736 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Hung, Y., Wijnhoven, H., Visser, M., & Verbeke, W. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11040777 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Zehbe, I., Moeller, H., Severini, A., Weaver, B., Escott, N. G., Bell, C., Crawford, S., Bannon, D., & Paavola, N. (2011) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2010-000030 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Fakhran, S., Yaeger, K., & Alhilali, L. M. (2013) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.13122343 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Backes, M., Dingemans, S. A., Dijkgraaf, M. G. W., Berg, H., Dijkman, B. V., Hoogendoorn, J. M., Joosse, P., Ritchie, E., Roerdink, W. H., Schots, J. P. M., et al. (2017) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2017.19343 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Schmid, E., Pechan, A., Mehnert, M., & Eisenack, K. (2017) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2017.02.012 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
van der Linden, C., Jakob, S., Gupta, P., Dulac, C. G., & Santoro, S. W. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07120-1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Gan, R., Liu, Q., Huang, G., Hu, K., & Li, X. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36053-7 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Goal-related planning constraints in bimanual grasping and placing of objects
Hughes, C. M. L., & Franz, E. A. (2008) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-008-1387-8 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Regenmortel, N. V., Hendrickx, S., Roelant, E., Baar, I., Dams, K., Vlimmeren, K. V., Embrecht, B., Wittock, A., Hendriks, J. M., Lauwers, P., et al. (2019) · Intensive Care Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05772-1 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Slee, J. A., & Levine, T. P. (2019) · Contact · doi:10.1177/2515256419883136 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A continual prediction model for inpatient acute kidney injury
Kate, R. J., Pearce, N., Mazumdar, D. C., & Nilakantan, V. (2019) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2019.103580 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Fairless, E. A., Nwanyanwu, K. H., Forster, S. H., & Teng, C. C. (2021) · Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.01.006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Mortality and injury assessment for three species of fish exposed to simulated turbine blade strike
Bevelhimer, M. S., Pracheil, B. M., Fortner, A. M., Saylor, R. K., & Deck, K. L. (2019) · Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences · doi:10.1139/cjfas-2018-0386 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Kroonenberg, P. M., & Verbeek, A. (2017) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.2017.1286260 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Torrea, G., Ng, K. C. S., Deun, A. V., André, E., Kaisergruber, J., Ssengooba, W., Desmaretz, C., Gabriëls, S., Driesen, M., Diels, M., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48401-z · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Esteves, S. C., Ramasamy, R., Colpi, G. M., de Carvalho, J. F., & Schlegel, P. N. (2020) · Human Reproduction Update · doi:10.1093/humupd/dmaa006 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Alkharaan, H., Bayati, S., Hellström, C., Aleman, S., Olsson, A., Lindahl, K., Bogdanović, G., Healy, K., Tsilingaridis, G., Palma, P., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiab256 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Rosenthal, R., & Dwan, K. M. (2013) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0b013e318283cf7f · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Constructing Difference: Lego® Set Narratives Promote Stereotypic Gender Roles and Play
Reich, S. M., Black, R. W., & Foliaki, T. (2017) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0868-2 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Sharma, M., SirDeshpande, P., Ugiliweneza, B., Dietz, N. E., & Boakye, M. (2019) · Journal of Neurosurgery Spine · doi:10.3171/2018.10.spine18952 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Mobile Mixed-Reality Interfaces That Enhance Human–Robot Interaction in Shared Spaces
Frank, J. A., Moorhead, M., & Kapila, V. (2017) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2017.00020 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Shen, H., Jayaram, R., Yoneda, S., Linderman, S. W., Sakiyama‐Elbert, S. E., Younan Xia, A., Gelberman, R. H., & Thomopoulos, S. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29474-8 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
- Authors
- Campbell, I.
- Corresponding author
- Campbell, Ian
- ORCID
- Campbell, Ian
- Venue
- Statistics in Medicine
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-02-21
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 3661-3675
- ISSN
- 0277-6715 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0258
- OpenAlex
- W2160927412
- Cited by
- 912
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 122 · 2019: 100 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 5.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Statistics in Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Probability and Statistical Research
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Keywords
- small sample testing, chi-square test, type I error, statistical power, Yates' correction, rare events
- MeSH terms
- Data Interpretation, Statistical, United Kingdom, Chi-Square Distribution, Sample Size
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
