The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 150 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Survey on reinforcement learning for language processing
Open accessAbstract
In recent years some researchers have explored the use of reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms as key components in the solution of various natural language processing (NLP) tasks. For instance, some of these algorithms leveraging deep neural learning have found their way into conversational systems. This paper reviews the state of the art of RL methods for their possible use for different problems of NLP, focusing primarily on conversational systems, mainly due to their growing relevance. We provide detailed descriptions of the problems as well as discussions of why RL is well-suited to solve them. Also, we analyze the advantages and limitations of these methods. Finally, we elaborate on promising research directions in NLP that might benefit from RL.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“For the verification subtask, verification models perform relatively well if given correct evidence [137].”
From Survey of Hallucination in Natural Language Generation (2023) · cites this paper as [137]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735 · Cited by 102,318
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14539 · Cited by 84,126
BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n19-1423 · Cited by 54,325
Glove: Global Vectors for Word Representation
Pennington, J., Socher, R., & Manning, C. (2014) · Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.3115/v1/d14-1162 · Cited by 34,071
Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning
Mnih, V., Kavukcuoglu, K., Silver, D., Rusu, A. A., Veness, J., Bellemare, M. G., Graves, A., Riedmiller, M., Fidjeland, A. K., Ostrovski, G., et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14236 · Cited by 30,357
Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space
Mikolov, T., Chen, K., Corrado, G., & Dean, J. (2013) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1301.3781 · Cited by 26,568
Learning Phrase Representations using RNN Encoder–Decoder for Statistical Machine Translation
Cho, K., van Merrienboer, B., Gulcehre, C., Bahdanau, D., Bougares, F., Schwenk, H., & Bengio, Y. (2014) · Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.3115/v1/d14-1179 · Cited by 25,545
Language Models are Few-Shot Learners
Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., et al. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2005.14165 · Cited by 23,372
BLEU: a method for automatic evaluation of machine translation
Papineni, K., Roukos, S., Ward, T., & Zhu, W.-J. (2001) · Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics - ACL '02 · doi:10.3115/1073083.1073135 · Cited by 21,344
GAN(Generative Adversarial Nets)
淳司, 柴. (2017) · Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Intelligent Informatics · doi:10.3156/jsoft.29.5_177_2 · Cited by 20,507
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- Bahdanau D, Cho K, Bengio Y (2015) Neural machine translation by jointly learning to align and translate. In: International conference on learning representations (ICLR), San Diego, CA, USA. arxiv
- Cangelosi A, Parisi D (eds) (2002) Simulating the evolution of language. Springer, London
- Goodfellow I, Pouget-Abadie J, Mirza M, Xu B, Warde-Farley D, Ozair S, Courville A, Bengio Y (2014) Generative adversarial nets. In: Advances in neural information processing systems (NIPS), Montreal, QC, Canada, vol 27. Curran Associates, Inc., pp 2672–2680
- Guo X, Klinger T, Rosenbaum C, Bigus JP, Campbell M, Kawas B, Talamadupula K, Tesauro G, Singh S (2017) Learning to query, reason, and answer questions on ambiguous texts. In: International conference on learning representations (ICLR), Toulon, France
- He J, Ostendorf M, He X, Chen J, Gao J, Li L, Deng L (2016) Deep reinforcement learning with a combinatorial action space for predicting popular Reddit threads. In: Conference on empirical methods in natural language processing (EMNLP), Austin, TX, USA. Association for Computational Linguistics, pp 1838–1848. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/D16-1189 · DOI
- Jiang J, Teichert A, Eisner J, Daumé III H (2012) Learned prioritization for trading off accuracy and speed. In: Advances in neural information processing systems (NIPS), Lake Tahoe, NV, USA, vol 25
- Kiros R, Zhu Y, Salakhutdinov RR, Zemel R, Urtasun R, Torralba A, Fidler S (2015) Skip-thought vectors. In: Advances in neural information processing systems (NIPS), Montreal, QC, Canada, vol 28. Curran Associates, Inc., pp 3294–3302
- Poljak BT (1973) Pseudogradient adaptation and training algorithms. Avtom Telemeh 3:45–68
- Sutton RS, Barto AG (2018) Reinforcement learning: an introduction, 2nd edn. Adaptive computation and machine learning series. The MIT Press, Cambridge
- Weaver W (1955) Translation. In: Locke WN, Booth AD (eds) Machine translation of languages: fourteen essays. The MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 15–23
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–178 of 178
Gomathi, R. D., Punithaasree, K. S., Vijaya, K., & Maheswaran, S. (2024) · Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities · doi:10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.35g · Cited by 1
Ensemble Methods of Determining the Effective Activity of Enterprises
Nazarkevych, M., Lytvyn, V., & Demchyk, D. (2024) · Lecture notes in electrical engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61221-3_9 · Cited by 1
The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Health Communication
Tanyıldızı, N. İ., & Yıldız, İ. (2024) · Advances in medical technologies and clinical practice book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-3719-6.ch006 · Cited by 1
Automated Learning and Scheduling Assistant using LLM
R., M. K., Abinayasankar, M., & B., B. G. (2024) · Journal of Ubiquitous Computing and Communication Technologies · doi:10.36548/jucct.2024.3.006 · Cited by 1
Ghorrati, Z., Shahnazari, K., Esmaeili, A., & Matson, E. T. (2024) · International Conference on Control, Decision and Information Technologies (CoDIT) · doi:10.1109/codit62066.2024.10708098 · Cited by 1
Yang, R., Tang, Q., & Guo, Y. (2024) · International Conference on Next Generation Data-driven Networks (NGDN) · doi:10.1109/ngdn61651.2024.10744121 · Cited by 1
Advancing healthcare: Reinforcement learning applications for personalized healthcare
Roayaei, M., & Soltani, Z. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-30146-9.00002-2 · Cited by 2
Segovia-García, N., & Rincón, A. G. (2025) · Edutec Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa · doi:10.21556/edutec.2025.92.3849 · Cited by 2
FWNL: Um Sistema de Processamento de Linguagem Natural para Configuração de Múltiplos Firewalls
Goulart, A., Washington, L. M. F., Paim, K. O., Lunardi, G. M., Kreutz, D., & Mansilha, R. B. (2022) · Simpósio Brasileiro de Cibersegurança (SBSeg) · doi:10.5753/sbseg_estendido.2022.227035
Online learning with binary feedback for multi-class problems
Lucas, E., Whitaker, S., & Havens, T. C. (2022) · IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI) · doi:10.1109/ssci51031.2022.10022153 · Cited by 1
Contextual Modeling in Context-Aware Conversation Systems
Tran, Q.-D. L., Vu, D.-H., Le, A.-C., & Ittoo, A. (2023) · KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems · doi:10.3837/tiis.2023.05.005
Implementing Conversational AI to Enhance Critical Illness Communication
Lal, M., & Neduncheliyan, S. (2023) · Smart innovation, systems and technologies · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_96
Dizon-Paradis, O. P., Wormald, S. E., Capecci, D. E., Bhandarkar, A., & Woodard, D. L. (2023) · doi:10.36227/techrxiv.23739099.v1 · Cited by 1
Lucas, E. (2023) · Digital Commons - Michigan Tech (Michigan Technological University) · doi:10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/1599
Probabilistic Robustness for Data Filtering
Yu, Y., Khan, A. R., Khadivi, S., & Xu, J. (2023) · Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.eacl-main.214
AI Transformation for Learning in Organizations
Bidarra, J., & Neves, C. (2024) · Advances in human resources management and organizational development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0556-0.ch004
Conversational Systems and Computational Intelligence, A Critical Analysis
Mir, Y. O. V., Pérez, P. Y. P., Pupo, I. P., Acuña, L. A., & Bello, R. (2024) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50495-2_1
Rong, F., Gao, W., Deng, Z., Gong, Z., Chen, C. H., Zhang, W., Niu, Z., Li, F., & Ma, L. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-72350-6_29
Reflections, Resources, and Future Horizons in RL+SLT
Lin, B. (2024) · Signals and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-53720-2_19
RL+SLT: Emerging RL-Powered Speech and Language Technologies
Lin, B. (2024) · Signals and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-53720-2_1
Optical Neural Network Based on Slimmed Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Mesh
Chen, Q., Yang, Z., Cai, Z., Zhang, T. Y., Dai, J., & Xu, K. (2024) · Asia Communications and Photonics Conference · doi:10.1109/acp/ipoc63121.2024.10809521
Leveraging Semantic Parsing using Text Embeddings and Reinforcement Learning
Piza-Londoño, J., & Andrade-Lotero, E. J. (2024) · IEEE Latin American Conference on Computational Intelligence (LA-CCI) · doi:10.1109/la-cci62337.2024.10814850
Winberg, D., Xuan, D., Tang, T., & Shi, L. (2025) · Pharmacoeconomics and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.pharp.2025.03.003 · Cited by 3
Optimizing English Lexical Databases with BERT and Reinforcement Learning
Saranya, V., Murthy, G. R. K., Alapati, P. R., Mythili, M., Swarnamughi, K., & Bala, B. K. (2025) · International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Computing, Communication and Sustainable Technologies (ICAECT) · doi:10.1109/icaect63952.2025.10958921
Application and Development of Natural Language Processing Algorithm System in Corpus Linguistics
Wei, Y. (2025) · International Conference on Integrated Circuits and Communication Systems (ICICACS) · doi:10.1109/icicacs65178.2025.10967678
Dynamic Recipe Adjustment in Industrial Processes: Exploring Reinforcement Learning ApproachesPreprint
Parmar, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5190573
Algorithmic Collusion of Pricing and Advertising on E-commerce PlatformsPreprint
Zhao, H., & Berman, R. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5279403 · Cited by 6
Wang, X., Zhao, H., Zhang, W., & Wang, F. (2025) · Information Technology and Management · doi:10.1007/s10799-025-00457-2
Chen, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, J., Pan, Z., Jia, S., & Huang, S. (2025) · Complex & Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1007/s40747-025-01967-w
Text Generator and Text Discriminator for NIST GenAI T2T Challenge
Sarker, S., Qian, L., & Dong, X. (2025) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and Control (AIRC) · doi:10.1109/airc64931.2025.11077532
Reinforcement Learning vs. Machine Learning for Prediction Tasks
Ez-zahraouy, O., & Kamach, O. (2025) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99997-0_23
Lin, C., & Huang, Z. (2025) · International Conference on Intelligent Algorithms for Computational Intelligence Systems (IACIS) · doi:10.1109/iacis65746.2025.11211175
GRLND: A Graph Reinforcement Learning Framework for Network Dismantling
Qu, H., Wang, X., Song, Y., Ni, W., Jiang, G., & Sheng, Q. Z. (2025) · ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) · doi:10.1145/3746252.3761371
Reinforcement Learning in Robotics: Unlocking Applications and Advancements
Ahmed, M. F., Tulluri, A. K., & Tiruveedula, N. B. P. (2025) · BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS eBooks · doi:10.2174/9789815322316125010011
Shukla, S., & Meena, Y. K. (2025) · International Conference of Human-Computer Interaction Design & Research · doi:10.1145/3768633.3770136
TFSCH: Transformer-based Scheduling for HPC
Chen, W., Zheng, L., Dai, L., Chang, Y., & Chen, W. (2025) · Information Communication Technologies Conference (ICTC) · doi:10.1109/ictc67375.2025.11292077
Formal Modeling of Reinforcement Learning Systems with SMT
Ding, T., Lin, Y., & Sun, M. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-4213-0_19
Application of Analytical Algorithms in AI Intelligent Language Processing
Su, L. (2026) · Lecture notes on data engineering and communications technologies · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-2518-8_22
Vijayalakshmi, S., Prakash, M., & Subhasree, R. (2025) · International Conference on Image Information Processing (ICIIP) · doi:10.1109/iciip68302.2025.11346237
Fiesta, M. M., & Toledo, S. M. V. (2026) · International Conference on Mobile Computing and Sustainable Informatics (ICMCSI) · doi:10.1109/icmcsi67283.2026.11412473
Topological Robust Reinforcement Learning
Goel, J., Jacob, R. A., Zhang, J., & Gel, Y. R. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata66926.2025.11401746
Song, P., Chin, W. M., Nie, X.-C., Li, L.-Y., Yang, Y.-J., Zhang, L., & Zhong, M. (2026) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-026-06897-7 · Cited by 1
Xie, X. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Electrical, Automation and Computer Engineering (ICEACE) · doi:10.1109/iceace67491.2025.11439419
Modeling User-Machine Interactions During The Information Retrieval Process
Mustar, A. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/bbdff803z7a52z450dz8f02z791c70371485
Granular Insights into Financial Discourse : Fine-Grained Opinion Analysis of Expert Texts
Hu, J. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/ed1d7748z8ebaz4550zbfb8z54bab2a6ac0a
Ma, M., Guo, B., Chen, M., Liu, J., Ding, Y., Liu, Y., & Wang, H. (2026) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3774904.3792335
Personalized and Context-Aware Text Suggestion Using Deep Reinforcement Learning
Pandikumar, S., Maram, B., Mary, T. M., & Nageshwari (2026) · International Conference on Future and Advanced Computing Technologies (ICFACT) · doi:10.1109/icfact66887.2026.11518436 · Cited by 2
Emerging AI techniques for advanced sentiment analysis: A comprehensive survey
Stephen, S., & Vadivel, R. (2026) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0329843
AI Enhanced Visual Hashtag Recommendation System for Personalized Content Visibility Optimization
Bhattacharya, A., & Dora, D. A. V. R. (2025) · International Conference on Emerging Research in Computational Science (ICERCS) · doi:10.1109/icercs65898.2025.11580919
Liu, Y. (2025) · International Conference on Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Applications (CSAIA) · doi:10.1109/csaia65930.2025.11623778
Mathematical methods of reinforcement learning
Belomestny, D. V., Gasnikov, A. V., Gladin, E. L., Naumov, A., Rubtsov, A. N., Sapronov, Y., Tiapkin, D., & Yudin, N. E. (2026) · Успехи математических наук · doi:10.4213/rm10328
Yang, Q., Gan, L., Cai, Y., Gao, S., & Liu, C. (2026) · Ocean Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2026.127400
Auto-conditioned stochastic recursive variance reduced policy gradient method
Qin, J., Liu, L., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Numerical Algorithms · doi:10.1007/s11075-026-02472-y
Mixture of Mesh Experts With Random Walk Transformer Gating
Belder, A., & Tal, A. (2026) · Computer Graphics Forum · doi:10.1111/cgf.70584
Jing, C. (2026) · Engineering Research Express · doi:10.1088/2631-8695/ae8d8a
Altarazi, A. M., & Awajan, A. (2026) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-39783-6_8
Application research of machine translation model based on improved GLR algorithm
Feng, W., & Huang, J. (2026) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-026-12524-y
Human-Centered Agentic AI Applications: Characteristics and Design Patterns
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805748
(2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805741
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805753
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805752
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805747
Human-Centered Agentic AI Applications in Healthcare
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805750
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805744
(2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805757
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805746
(2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805740
Agentic AI Solutions for Human Resource Management
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805756
Agentic AI Solutions for Education
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805754
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805743
(2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805758
Human-Centered Agentic AI Applications in Human Resource Management
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805751
Human-Centered Agentic AI Applications in Education
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805749
Agentic AI Solutions for Healthcare
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805755
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805745
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739
Zhou, M. X., Lu, J., Huahai, Y., & Chen, W. (2026) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3805739.3805742
Metadata
- Authors
- Uc-Cetina, V., Navarro-Guerrero, N., Martin-Gonzalez, A., Weber, C., & Wermter, S.
- Affiliations
- Universität Hamburg (DE)
- German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Uc-Cetina, Víctor
- Venue
- Artificial Intelligence Review
- Published
- 2022-06-03
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1543-1575
- ISSN
- 0269-2821 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-7462
- OpenAlex
- W3156829097
- Cited by
- 177
- References
- 151
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 11
- FWCI
- 11.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Artificial Intelligence Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (TRR-169)
- CONACYT
- Universität Hamburg
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech and dialogue systems
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Reinforcement Learning in Robotics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Natural Language Processing Techniques
- Keywords
- reinforcement learning, natural language processing, dialogue systems, deep reinforcement learning, NLP tasks
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review