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A review of predictive policing from the perspective of fairness
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“Utilizing AI fairness to address bias in risk assessment tools ensures that criminal sentencing decisions are fair [88,281].”
From AI Fairness in Data Management and Analytics: A Review on Challenges, Methodologies and Applications (2023) · cites this paper as [88]
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“biases or lead to discrimination [74], [75].”
AI Fairness in Data Management and Analytics: A Review on Challenges, Methodologies and Applications
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“The present article thus seeks to address limitations in previously published surveys (Alikhademi et al., 2022; Atkinson & Bench-Capon, 2019), centrally the failure to account for the heterogeneous nature of reasoning, adjudication, and administrative decision-making across legal sub-domains.”
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“Machine learning models are prone to repeating existing systemic bias from human decision-makers [25].”
BackgroundSurvey on Machine Learning Biases and Mitigation Techniques
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“Studies also recommend that for AI algorithms to be valuable in smart policing and law enforcement, they must not only improve their efficiency and accuracy but also be perceived as fair in their recommendations or decision-making [142].”
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Gilman, E., Bugiotti, F., Khalid, A., Mehmood, H., Kostakos, P., Tuovinen, L., Ylipulli, J., Su, X. J., & Ferreira, D. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology · doi:10.1145/3663482 · Cited by 46
Data augmentation for fairness-aware machine learning
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“Those methods are sub-divided into pre-processing approaches, consisting of manipulation of data or features to allow for a fairer representation of minorities, in-processing approaches, entailing the reformulation of the classification problem by considering the discrimination behavior in the optimization function, a…”
MethodBaron, S. (2025) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-024-00837-6 · Cited by 43
“This includes banking (Aggarwal, 2021), criminal recidivism (Dressel & Farid, 2018), hiring (Kuncel et al., 2014), policing (Alikhademi et al., 2022) and healthcare (Alowais et al., 2023; Gulshan et al., 2016; Donnelly, 2017; Longoni, Bonezzi and Morewedge 2019; McKinney et al., 2020; Topol, 2019).”
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“In domains with profound impacts on life chances, including decisions regarding policing (Alikhademi et al., 2021), welfare benefits (Desiere et al.”
BackgroundMore Process, Less Principles: The Ethics of Deploying AI and Robotics in Medicine.
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“AI-driven decision-making has already penetrated into almost all spheres of human life, from content recommendation [51] and healthcare [59] to predictive policing [2] and autonomous driving [77], deeply affecting everyone, anywhere, anytime.”
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Guo, Z., & Kennedy, L. (2022) · Artificial Intelligence and Law · doi:10.1007/s10506-022-09330-x · Cited by 20
“Predictive policing involves using algorithms to analyse massive amounts of pre-existing crime data to identify times and locations, which have a high risk of crime, thus predicting and helping prevent the commission of potential future crimes (Alikhademi et al 2022; Degeling and Berendt 2017).”
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Nagy, N. (2023) · Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies · doi:10.1556/2052.2023.00481 · Cited by 19
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“A notable example is AI-driven predictive policing, which, while analyzing crime patterns, has been criticized for reinforcing biases in historical crime data, disproportionately targeting marginalized communities and perpetuating systemic inequalities (Yen and Hung, 2021; Alikhademi et al., 2022).”
AI, Law and beyond. A transdisciplinary ecosystem for the future of AI & Law
Bex, F. (2024) · Artificial Intelligence and Law · doi:10.1007/s10506-024-09404-y · Cited by 21
“Issues like model behaviour, bias and fairness have become important, also in AI & Law (Alikhademi et al. 2022; Tolan et al. 2019).”
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“This example may prompt the questions, “How did this go wrong?” and “Why didn’t we see this coming?” The left column in Table 1 provides a non-exhaustive list of various contributing factors to ethical harms in predictive policing (Degeling and Berendt, 2018; Asaro, 2019; Richardson et al., 2019; Miró-Llinares, 2020;…”
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Li, W., & Zheng, X. (2024) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2024/3448083 · Cited by 25
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“Additionally, predictive policing models using AI to forecast crime, if not carefully managed, can result in over-policing in certain communities, often disproportionately affecting marginalized groups (Alikhademi et al .”
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“Algorithms are increasingly being utilized as aids in decision-making, affecting sectors ranging from criminal justice [15] to banking [1], hiring [38,41], policing [3], and now more prominently in healthcare.”
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“Other authors have raised the issue of the scope and value that the predictions generated by such algorithms should receive in the police or judicial sphere (Hannah-Moffat 2009; Parmar and Freeman 2016; Ratcliffe 2019; Meijer and Wessels 2019; Garrett and Monahan 2020; Alikhademi et al. 2021; Ugwudike 2021).”
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“…abstract principles require a tremendous amount of work to operationalize, and they have led to disagreements at the technical level around what measures of success might be appropriate for judging, for example, the fairness of a model (Alikhademi et al. 2021) or its accountability (Wieringa 2020).”
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“Central concerns are that algorithms (a) embed bias (Alikhademi et al. 2022), promoting rational discrimination that targets marginalized persons, including racial minorities and the poor (Gandy 2016); (b) can compromise rights (particularly privacy, expression, assembly and association,…”
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“Alikhademi et al. [52] explored the merits, challenges, and strategies of machine learning in policing, while Eric [53] examined the intricate connections between crimes and investigative procedures.”
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“…of people with dark skin (Koerber et al., 2022), algorithmic predictive policing and predictions of dangerousness have been shown to be biased (Alikhademi et al., 2022; Tonry, 2019) as have hiring algorithms, and genetic ancestry testing is much more accurate in determining the geographic…”
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“While the primary concerns in the cybersecurity literature relate to privacy and surveillance, data and machine bias issues are considered the main risk in predictive policing (Alikhademi et al., 2022; Gstrein et al., 2019).”
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“For instance in criminal justice, Race plays a non-negligible role in predicting the likelihood of them re-offending [2].”
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“When predictive policing targets marginalized communities, responsibility is offloaded onto technology, insulating struc - tural inequities (13).”
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“Outside of biomedical settings, such issues have been described in predictive policing, credit scoring systems, hiring tools, and many more applications [14–17].”
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“Chica - go’s “heat list” algorithm disproportionately flagged individ - uals in minority communities for police attention, creating feedback loops that intensified over-policing in already stigmatized neighborhoods (Ferguson, 2017a; Alikhademi et al., 2022 ; Lum and Isaac, 2016 ).”
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“The Los Angeles Police Department (Egbert, 2018) in the US, the West Midlands Police Department (Pramanik, Lau, Yue, Ye, & Li, 2017) in the UK, the Munich Police Department (Egbert & Krasmann, 2020) in Germany, the Basel Police Department (Egbert & Krasmann, 2020) in Switzerland, the Netherlands Amsterdam Police Depar…”
BackgroundTHE (BUSINESS) ETHICS OF AI REGULATION
GIBEA, T., & Uszkai, R. (2023) · Proccedings of the International Management Conference · doi:10.24818/imc/2022/02.06 · Cited by 2
“While researchers in academia are debating the ethics of predictive and algorithmic policing (Moses & Chan, 2018; Alikhademi et al., 2022), or the use of facial recognition for mass surveillance, San Francisco voted, in late November 2022, to allow police to use killer robots (Wu, 2022).”
Dutta, P., & Banik, A. K. (2023) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-023-10538-9 · Cited by 2
“In-depth research on machine learning benefits, drawbacks, and strategies to advance policing was done by Alikhademi et al. (2021).”
BackgroundReal-Life Experimentation with Artificial Intelligence
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“Many scholars warned that predictive algorithms may perpetuate systemic biases leading to adverse consequences for society [1].”
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“Similarly, Alikhademi et al. [1] observed that fairness discussions in AI policing often occur separately from legal and social science debates.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Alikhademi, K., Drobina, E., Prioleau, D., Richardson, B., Purves, D., & Gilbert, J. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Florida (US)
- Corresponding author
- Alikhademi, Kiana
- Venue
- Artificial Intelligence and Law
- Published
- 2021-04-15
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-17
- ISSN
- 0924-8463 (ISSN-L)
- 1572-8382
- OpenAlex
- W3155016818
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 2
- FWCI
- 35.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2021-08-28)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Artificial Intelligence and Law (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- NSF (1917712)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Law › Artificial Intelligence in Law
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Keywords
- predictive policing, algorithmic fairness, indirect discrimination, systemic bias, criminal justice, algorithmic bias, social justice
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