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Analogical problem solving
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across five experiments, people could use a story analogy from a distant military domain to solve Duncker’s radiation problem, especially when given a hint to use the story. Without such a hint, spontaneous noticing and transfer dropped sharply, even though the analogy was often retrievable and usable once prompted.
Key findings
- In Experiment I, all 10 subjects given the Attack-Dispersion story produced the dispersion solution, versus 0 of 10 controls; the Open Supply Route story raised open-passage proposals to 70% versus 20% in other conditions, and the Tunnel story raised operation proposals to 80% versus 43% elsewhere.
- In Experiment II, the Attack story produced 76% total dispersion solutions (57% complete, 19% partial), the Parade story produced 49% (31% complete, 18% partial), and controls produced 8%; the less analogous Parade problem statement reduced transfer. Effective analogies also narrowed search: non-dispersion proposals averaged 1.17 for Attack, 1.40 for Parade, and 2.12 for controls, while healthy-tissue-protection alternatives appeared for 2% of Attack, 16% of Parade, and 28% of control subjects.
- In Experiment III, 22 of 45 subjects (49%) generated the military dispersion solution; 9 of those 22 (41%) then produced a radiation dispersion solution, compared with 3 of the remaining 23 (13%). This 41% was lower than the 76% obtained in Experiment II when the solution was supplied by the experimenter.
- In Experiment IV, 11 of 12 hinted subjects (92%) produced the complete dispersion solution, but only 3 of 15 no-hint subjects (20%) did so, and probably only 1 noticed the analogy spontaneously. In Experiment V, 43% produced the solution before a hint and 76% eventually did; the incubation-control condition produced it for only 1 of 10 subjects (10%), and that subject did so before seeing the story.
Methods
- Five experiments used Duncker’s radiation problem as the target and military stories as analogies. Experiment I used oral protocols with 40 undergraduates, 10 per condition, comparing three story types against a no-story control with experimenter prompts. Experiment II used a noninteractive booklet with 143 undergraduates assigned to Attack, Parade, or control. Experiment III had 46 students first solve the military problem and then the radiation problem. Experiment IV had 27 paid subjects memorize the critical story among two distractor stories and then solve the radiation problem with or without a hint. Experiment V had 47 paid subjects in Story First, Story Second, or Incubation Control conditions.
- Main analyses scored solution types by independent scorers, used G² tests for condition comparisons, and supplemented these with protocol excerpts, helpfulness/creativity/practicality ratings, and recall scoring in Experiment IV.
Limitations
- Stated by the authors: the study used only one target problem and a limited set of story analogies, so generalization is cautious; it remains unclear whether similar results would hold for more computational or multi-step problems; more work is needed on spatial representation, noticing, memory access, and mapping; post-hoc questionnaires may reflect hindsight; protocol analysis has obvious limits; and Experiment III was correlational, though additional evidence suggested a causal influence.
- Evident from the text, not framed as author limitations: samples were undergraduates or paid subject-pool participants, several conditions had small numbers (e.g., 12 hinted and 15 no-hint subjects in Experiment IV; 10 incubation-control subjects in Experiment V), and Experiment I involved substantial experimenter prompting and feedback.
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Claims the paper makes
82 Own result · 54 Own interpretation · 12 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 5 Sources not found · 4 No basis given · 1 Not checked yet
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when no hint to consider the story was given, frequency of analogous solutions decreased markedly.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In all experiments subjects who first read a story about a military problem and its solution tended to generate analogous solutions to a medical problem (Duncker's “radiation problem”), provided they were given a hint to use the story to help solve the problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects were able to retrieve the story from memory and use it to generate an analogous solution, even when the critical story had been memorized in the context of two distractor stories (Experiment IV).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Transfer frequency was reduced when the problem presented in the military story was substantially disanalogous to the radiation problem, even though the solution illustrated in the story corresponded to an effective radiation solution (Experiment II).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects in Experiment III tended to generate analogous solutions to the radiation problem after providing their own solutions to the military problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, 22 of the 45 subjects (49%) produced the gist of the dispersion solution: the general should divide the troops into small groups and send them down different roads.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 45- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The value of 41% is significantly higher than the 8% of subjects who produced the dispersion solution to the radiation problem without any prior story problem (Control condition of Experiment II), G2(1) = 10.4,p < .Ol.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Newman-Keuls tests revealed that only the difference between the Tunnel and Attack-Dispersion conditions was significant (p < .Ol).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Hint condition, 11 out of 12 subjects (92%) produced the complete dispersion solution.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The protocols of 2 of the 3 prompted subjects suggested use of a solution-focusing strategy.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 60
- The quote only partly states this claim. 4
- Probably not a substantial claim. 25
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two subjects in the Tunnel condition who produced the dispersion solution did so after first spontaneously remarking that the general might have sent his men down multiple roads.One other subject, in the Open Supply Route condition, also suggested the dispersion solution to the military problem, but failed to apply it to the radiation problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eighty percent of subjects in the Tunnel conditions produced operation solutions, as opposed to 43% of subjects in all other conditions, G2(1) = 4.29, p < .05.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Collapsing over subjects in all conditions, the dispersion solution tended to be rated as most practical (a mean of 2.0), followed by the open passage (3.9) and operation solutions (5.4).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Control subjects more often were prompted to talk.Sometimes they seemed confused and asked if there really was a solution to the problem.In addition, control subjects received fewer prompts to clarify their solutions.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Collapsing over all conditions, dispersion solutions tended to be produced relatively early in the sequence of proposals given by a subject (i.e., prior to the proposal of median rank, p < .025by a sign test).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when later questioned by the experimenter, S28 clearly was also aware of correspondences between the radiation problem and the prior story'.It is therefore uncertain which analogy initially triggered generation of the dispersion solution.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Attack-Dispersion condition seven subjects produced and rated the dispersion solution and at least one other proposal.The dispersion solution was rated as much more practical than other solutions (1.43 versus 4.64), F(1,6) = 27.2,p < .Ol.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, 10 of the 12 subjects indicated that the Attack-Dispersion story was “very helpful,” one indicated that it was “somewhat helpful,” and one did not answer the question.In contrast, 50% of the subjects indicated that “The Wine Merchants” was “not helpful at all,” and 91% (10 of 11 who answered the question) indicated that “The Identical Twins” was “not helpful at all.””
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mean number of proposals was 1.17 for the Attack condition, 1.40 for the Parade condition, and 2.12 for the control condition, F(2,139) = 12.7, p < .OOl.A Newman-Keuls test indicated that only the difference between the control condition and the two story conditions was significant, p < .Ol.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of 24 subjects who gave the successive groups solution to the military problem, 10 (42%) suggested an accumulation solution to the radiation problem.In contrast, only 3 of the remaining 21 subjects (14%) suggested an accumulation solution to the radiation problem, G2(l) = 4.28, p < .05.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 24 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Seventy percent of subjects in the Open Supply Route condition produced the open passage solution, as opposed to 20% of subjects in all other conditions, G2(1) = 8.21, p < .Ol.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most subjects who produced a dispersion solution rated the story as “very helpful.”In contrast, the majority of those subjects in both conditions who failed to produce a dispersion solution rated the story as “not helpful at all.””
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dispersion solutions were produced by 76% of the subjects in the Attack-Dispersion condition, 49% of the subjects in the Parade-Dispersion condition, and only 8% of the subjects in the control condition, G2(2) = 53.1,p < .OOl.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For this solution the frequency differences among the four conditions were highly significant, G2(3) = 33.9,p < .OOl, as was a comparison between the Attack-Dispersion condition versus all others, G2( 1) = 30.9,p < .001.3”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the nine subjects who generated the dispersion solution to both problems, all but one indicated that the military story was “somewhat” or “very” helpful in solving the radiation problem (one other subject did not respond to this question).In contrast, a majority (58%) of the remaining subjects indicated that the story was not helpful at all.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedcorrelationaln = 9- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Subjects' post-hoc ratings of story helpfulness accurately reflect their solution processes.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the 22 subjects who produced the dispersion solution to the military problem, 9 (41%) subsequently produced either complete or partial dispersion solutions to the radiation problem.Five of these subjects produced a complete solution.In contrast, only 3 of the remaining 23 subjects (13%) produced this solution G2( 1) = 4.61, p < .05.Two of these subjects produced a complete solution.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 22 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Parallel analyses for the Open Supply Route and Tunnel conditions revealed no significant differences.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Open Supply Route story, the open passage solution received the highest rating, although it did not differ significantly from the ratings given the two operation solutions.However, these three solutions were all rated significantly higher than any of the others (p < .05).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The independent rating task subjects' likelihood ratings are a valid proxy for the story analogies' actual effectiveness in Experiment I.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notice also that the solution S 15 proposes prior to the prompt involves the idea of applying many low-intensity rays.After the prompt, the subject produces the dispersion solution by augmenting this aspect of the earlier solution with the idea of sending rays from many angles.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the 10 subjects in the Attack-Dispersion condition, 7 produced the dispersion solution without any prompt, and 3 produced it after being prompted to refer back to the story.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 10- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas 92% of the subjects in the Hint condition produced the dispersion solution, only 20% (3 out of 15) of those in the No Hint condition did so, G2(1) = 15.5,~< .OOl.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fifteen of the twenty subjects selected the dispersion solution as more practical @ < .05by a sign test).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 15 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also note that at the beginning of this excerpt S28 remarks that the dispersion solution made it hard to think of alternative solutions, suggesting that he was aware of a set effect.No other subject explicitly mentioned such an inhibitory effect of the prior story.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of the Tunnel condition four of the eight subjects who generated operation solutions received a prompt to use the story before they did so.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such solutions were produced by 30% of the subjects in the control condition, 10% of the subjects in the Tunnel condition, and none of the subjects in the Attack-Dispersion and Open Supply conditions.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average number of nonanalogous solutions produced was 1.10 for the Attack-Dispersion condition, 1.60 for the Open Supply Route condition, 2.70 for the Tunnel condition, and 2.00 for the control condition, F(3,36) = 4.17, p < .025.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After the prompt to use the story, this subject clearly focuses on the solution of dividing up the army into groups and immediately generates the parallel solution to the radiation problem.There is no apparent map- ping between the initial problem stated in the story and the target problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the three story conditions, the Open Supply Route condition produced the second highest frequency of operation solutions, while the Tunnel condition produced the second highest frequency of open passage solutions.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All 10 subjects who were given the Attack-Dispersion story produced this solution, whereas not a single control subject did so.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 10- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This subject's protocol is particularly interesting because he claimed that he generated the dispersion solution on the basis of an analogy between the radiation problem and an actual problem he had read about the previous night (using lasers to fuse the filament in a lightbulb without breaking the glass).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas 76% of the subjects in the two experimental conditions eventually produced the dispersion solution, only 10% (one subject) produced it in the Incubation Control condition, G2(1) = 15.0,p < .OOl.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Incubation Control | 10 | 0 | 0 | 90 | 10 |”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Identical Twins
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects in this experiment seemed to have little difficulty in identifying the appropriate story in memory, and applying it to the target problem, as long as they were instructed to do so.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Noticing and Accessing Potential Analogies
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Story Second | 10 | 35 | 30 | 25 | 20 |”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Identical Twins
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Attack-Dispersion | 57 | 19 | 76 | 47 |”
- Also stated in: § The Identical Twins · plain
“| Parade-Dispersion | 31 | 18 | 49 | 45 |”
- Also stated in: § The Identical Twins · plain
“| Control | 8 | 0 | 8 | 50 |”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Identical Twins
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § The Identical Twins · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Attack-Dispersion story | 100 | 10 | 30 |”
- Also stated in: § The Identical Twins · plain
“| Control | 0 | 20 | 50 |”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Identical Twins
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § The Identical Twins · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Story First | - | 41 | 35 | 24 | 17 |”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Identical Twins
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Story First condition, 41% of the subjects gave the dispersion solution on their first attempt following recall of the story; while in the Story Second condition, 35% of the subjects produced this solution immediately after reading the story.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Collapsing over the Story First and Story Second conditions, 43% of the subjects generated the dispersion solution prior to receiving the hint, while a total of 76% eventually succeeded in producing the critical solution.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three propositions were recalled by all 27 subjects.These were proposition 1 (“A small country was ruled by a king”) and propositions 5 and 6 (“Many roads radiated outward from the fortress like spokes on a wheel”).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainn = 27- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They argue that the understanding process may involve the iterative application of a set of inference rules that generate increasingly abstract “macrostructure” representations of a prose passage.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Representation of Analogy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kintsch and Van Dijk (1978) source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“While the process of solving analogy test items of the form A:B::C:D has been studied quite extensively (Sternberg, 1977a(Sternberg, , 1977b)), there has been little experimental investigation of analogical thinking in more complex problem-solving tasks.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sternberg, 1977a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Sternberg, 1977b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The hydraulic model of the blood circulation system, the planetary model of atomic structure, and the “billiard ball” model of gases all represent major scientific theories founded on analogies (Boden, 1977, Chap. 11).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Boden, 1977
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The anecdotal reports of creative scientists and mathematicians suggest that the development of a new theory frequently depends on noticing and applying an analogy drawn from a different domain of knowledge (Hadamard, 1954).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hadamard, 1954
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“While much remains to be learned about how this process operates, the three specific inference rules proposed by Kintsch and Van Dijk (which they term “deletion,” “generalization,” and “construction”) would seem readily applicable to the type of story analogies we are considering here.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Representation of Analogy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kintsch and Van Dijk (1978) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, the army and the rays do not till corresponding semantic roles in propositions 5 and 5'; rather, the army is the object of the process of destruction in 5, while the rays are the instrument of the destruction in 5'.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Representation of Analogy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Duncker identified three broad categories of proposed solutions to the radiation problem: (1) reducing the intensity of the rays as they pass through the healthy tissue; (2) avoiding contact between the rays and healthy tissue; and (3) altering the relative sensitivity to rays of the healthy tissue and the tumor (e.g., by immunizing the healthy tissue or sensitizing the tumor).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > THE RADIATION PROBLEM AND ITS ANALOGIES
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Duncker (1945) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems clear, however, that the “semantic distance” between analogous domains can vary a great deal.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > INTRODUCTION
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A system of representation for analogy must be able to describe a fundamental property of such relational systems, namely, that analogy may be defined at multiple levels of abstraction.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Representation of Analogy
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“S15 appeared to use the story analogy to develop the early partial solution; however, other subjects apparently generated an abstract partial solution independently of the analogy.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the Open Supply Route story only suggests that an existing open passage might be used.The subject must then search memory to find a concrete example of such an open passage to the stomach (e.g., the esophagus).Applying the analogy thus involves two steps: mapping the abstract idea of an open passage from the story to the target problem, and then thinking of a concrete example of such”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedconditionaln = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two independent scorers were entirely in agreement in identifying dispersion solutions to the radiation problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In order to avoid any possibility that subjects could be led to a particular solution by the experimenter, Experiment II used a noninteractive procedure in which story analogies and the radiation problem were administered in booklet form.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This analysis was done by two independent scorers, each blind to the conditions in which subjects served.Disagreements were resolved by discussion.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analogous radiation solutions might be to operate to expose the tumor to the rays, or to insert a tube through the stomach wall and send rays through it to the tumor.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects' protocols for the radiation problem were transcribed and scored for the presence of various types of proposed solutions, by two independent scorers.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the lack of empirical research on analogical problem solving, even more basic issues arise.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the numbers involved were too small to be statistically reliable, these results suggest that an analogy may tend to block generation of alternative types of solutions.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
- Rests on an assumption: The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, 2 of these 3 subjects gave only partial solutions (as defined in Experiment II), and indicated that they did not consider using the stories.It is therefore possible, and in fact rather likely, that only 1 of the 15 subjects spontaneously noticed the critical analogy and successfully applied it to produce the dispersion solution.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For our story analogy and target problem the solution process appears to require three major steps.”
- Also stated in: § The Representation of Analogy · plain
“(2) The representation of the story must be mapped onto that of the problem.”
- Also stated in: § The Representation of Analogy · plain
“(3) Finally, the person must use the mapping to generate the parallel solution to the target problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Representation of Analogy
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § The Representation of Analogy · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the effectiveness of analogies in prompting a specific solution is a matter of degree.In particular, a story with a problem statement analogous to that of the radiation problem (the Attack story) was more likely to trigger the dispersion solution than was a story with a problem statement less related to that of the radiation problem (the Parade story).This was true even though both stories”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall impression created by the problem-solving protocols is that the generation of analogous solutions involves a conscious process of mapping correspondences between the story and the target problem.The degree of mapping required seems to vary a great deal.Sometimes mapping was done in considerable detail, particularly if the subject was having difficulty producing a parallel solution.In”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects clearly had no serious difficulty in identifying the critical story analogy in memory and applying it to generate the dispersion solution to the radiation problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notice that both types of solutions involve avoiding contact between the rays and the healthy tissue, by directing the rays through an unobstructed route.The basic difference between the two solution types is simply that the open passage solution makes use of a preexisting route (the esophagus), while the operation solutions require that the route be constructed (by some type of operation).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Duncker (1945) reported that only 2 of 42 subjects arrived at this dispersion solution, and both were prompted by the experimenter.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Duncker (1945) source
plainn = 42- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data for one subject in the Parade-Dispersion condition who was familiar with the radiation problem and dispersion solution were discarded.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There seem to be at least three distinct ways in which subjects who have a relevant analogy available might nonetheless fail to derive the parallel solution to a target problem.”
- Also stated in: § ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS · hedged
“The first and most basic is that subjects might be unable to successfully apply the story analogy even if they tried.”
- Also stated in: § ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS · hedged
“Third, subjects might be able to retrieve a potentially useful analogy and yet fail to spontaneously notice its relevance to the target problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTS · hedged
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since subjects were randomly assigned to the two conditions, degree of memory for the critical story should have been equalized across the two conditions.”
- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · plain
“As anticipated, the mean number of propositions recalled did not differ significantly between the Hint and No Hint groups (32.08 versus 33.53), f < 1.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even though the stories and the target problem were always presented verbally in our experiments, the problems essentially describe spatial relationships.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of Experiment IV demonstrated that subjects can identify a relevant story analogy encoded into memory in the context of distractor stories, and can use the analogy to generate a solution to a subsequent target problem.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > EXPERIMENT V
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, the mapping process may in part depend on interpretive procedures that are applied to a mediating spatial image.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We certainly need to be cautious in generalizing on the basis of the present study, which used only one target problem and a very limited set of story analogies.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, in one investigation of the use of hints in the “two-string” problem, the experimenter “accidentally” brushed against one string and set it in motion (Maier, 1931).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Noticing and Accessing Potential Analogies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maier, 1931 source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This hint was very effective in eliciting the “pendulum” solution (attaching objects as weights and setting the strings in motion); yet subjects rarely reported being aware of using the hint, unless they gave the solution in separate stages, rather than all at once.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Noticing and Accessing Potential Analogies
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maier, 1931 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, of the seven subjects in the Story First group who gave the dispersion solution immediately after story recall, six reported that they used the story to help solve the problem.If we accept these reports at face value, it appears that the percentages of subjects in the two conditions who spontaneously noticed and used the analogy were identical (35% in both conditions).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Results and Discussion
hedgedn = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Subjects' reports about whether they used the story accurately reflect their actual use of the story.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our use of a propositional representation to describe the correspondences between the stories and the radiation problem does not preclude the possibility that some form of analog representation plays an important role in the mapping process.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the above description of the role of mapping potentially applies not just to problem solving, but to a wide range of cognitive skills requiring concept learning and classification of instances.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Generality of the Mapping Process
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intuitively, this phrase seems to elicit a spatial image that represents those essential aspects of the dispersion solution that can be applied to both the military and the medical problems.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, the mapping of correspondences between relational structures is involved in the use of schemata for story understanding (Rumelhart, 1975), frames for scene perception (Minsky, 1975), and scripts for understanding of social behavior (Abelson, 1975).”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > The Generality of the Mapping Process
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the process of analogical problem solving is neither automatic nor invariably applied by college students as a conscious strategy.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > EXPERIMENT V
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This decline in transfer performance cannot be attributed to faulty encoding of the story analogy, since most subjects were able to produce the analogous solution once they were given a hint to apply the story.”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > Noticing and Accessing Potential Analogies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is an optimal level of abstraction at which analogical relations may be represented to effectively guide the solution process.
“Similarly, we assume there is an optimal level of abstraction at which analogical relations may be represented in order to effectively guide the solution process.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Proposition 1' (the tumor is located in the interior of the patient's body) is included in the macrostructure for the radiation problem as an inference based on knowledge of where the stomach is located.
“Incidentally, note that we assume proposition 1' is included in the macrestructure for the problem as an inference based on knowledge of where the stomach is located.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The person will use semantic knowledge to transform the relation of “capturing” into “destroying” via the common semantic core “overcoming”.
“In the case of propositions 16 and 16', we assume the person will use semantic knowledge to transform the relation of “capturing” into the relation of “destroying,” operating on the common semantic core (i.e., “overcoming”) that links the two relations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The verbal protocols obtained while subjects thought aloud provide valid evidence about their underlying problem-solving processes.
“some subjects insisted that talking aloud hindered their thinking, and consequently did not say very much.”
“While this type of protocol analysis has obvious limitations, it may at least provide some hints about the process of analogical problem solving, and in fact served in part to motivate subsequent experiments.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The independent rating task subjects' likelihood ratings are a valid proxy for the story analogies' actual effectiveness in Experiment I.
“In order to assess whether subjects shared our intuitions we administered a rating task to 51 undergraduates, none of whom previously knew of any solutions to the radiation problem.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The experimenter's prompts and interactions in Experiment I did not create the analogous solutions or substantially distort the solution frequencies.
“Since a primary concern in Experiment I was to obtain interpretabie oral protocols, a considerable amount of probing by the experimenter was essential.However, it would clearly be desirable to demonstrate that people can use analogies to generate problem solutions without interacting with the experimenter.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The control condition with no story is a valid baseline for assessing story analogy effects.
“The control condition used no story at all, rather than an irrelevant story, because it seemed possible that an irrelevant story would actually interfere with the solution process.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two distractor stories used in Experiment IV are disanalogous to the radiation problem.
“However, the two distractor stories were intended to be as disanalogous to the radiation problem as possible.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Subjects' post-hoc ratings of story helpfulness accurately reflect their solution processes.
“The results obtained with such post-hoc questionnaires must be interpreted with caution, since they may reflect hindsight rather than accurate memories of the solution process.Nevertheless, these rating results are at least a source of converging evidence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Subjects' reports about whether they used the story accurately reflect their actual use of the story.
“If we accept these reports at face value, it appears that the percentages of subjects in the two conditions who spontaneously noticed and used the analogy were identical (35% in both conditions).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests that, in general, a greater number of examples can lead to superior transfer when learning an abstract rule”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Gick and Holyoak, 1980
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“GPT3 also displayed strong zero-shot performance on letter string analogies, 16 four-term verbal analogies, 17,19-21 and identification of analogies between stories. 18,22,23”
From Emergent analogical reasoning in large language models (2023) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“GPT-3 also showed performance in the same range as human participants (though numerically weaker) on a problem set from Jones et al. 21 involving categorical, compositional, and causal relations (Figure 7d).”
From Emergent analogical reasoning in large language models (2023) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“participants performed worse on problems in which the analogs were semantically distant (i.e., the A and B terms had low semantic similarity to C and D), an effect that was also displayed by GPT-3 (logistic regression, effect of semantic distance for GPT-3: OR = 3 . 24, p = 0 . 0165, CI = [1 . 24 , 8 . 5]).”
From Emergent analogical reasoning in large language models (2023) · cites this paper as [21]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentχ²(1) = 30.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“G2( 1) = 30.9,p < .001”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 4.29reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .038
“G2(1) = 4.29, p < .05”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 4.17reported p < .025 · recomputed p = .012
“F(3,36) = 4.17, p < .025”
- ConsistentF(0.5, 160) = 1.32reported p > .25
“F(.5,160) = 1.32, p > .25”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 5.78reported p < .02 · recomputed p = .016
“G2(1) = 5.78, p < .02”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 4.61reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .032
“G2( 1) = 4.61, p < .05”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Analogical Problem Solving > INTRODUCTION
“(Hadamard, 1954)”
§ Analogical Problem Solving > References
“9. Hadamard, J. The psychology of invention in the mathematical field. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1945.”
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“However, once easily accessible knowledge has been activated, people often have difficulty switching perspectives in order to search for ideas within other categories, and more remote ones in particular (see [35]), known as “cognitive inertia” (see [41]).”
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InfluentialA design for the ICARUS architecture
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“The planning component also relies on a form of reasoning by analogy that is generally consistent with results on analogical problem solving in humans (Gick & Holyoak, 1980).”
ResultA Multimodal Analysis of Making
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“…research has shown support for far transfer is more likely to occur when participants are provided support such as hints or other cues that prompt recall of the previous learning and its potential of generalization or applicability in the new situation (e.g., Gick and Holyoak, 1980; Halpern, 1998).”
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Making Connections in Math: Activating a Prior Knowledge Analogue Matters for Learning
Sidney, P. G., & Alibali, M. W. (2013) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.792091 · Cited by 58
“Learners face several obstacles when attempting to identify a helpful source analogue and to map and adapt knowledge from source to target problems (e.g., Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Novick, 1988; Novick & Holyoak, 1991; Reed et al., 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialGender and Task in the Determination of Spatial Cognitive Performance
Sharps, M. J., Welton, A. L., & Price, J. L. (1993) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00677.x · Cited by 59
Semantic coherence and fallacies in estimating joint probabilities
Wolfe, C. R., & Reyna, V. F. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.650 · Cited by 59
“The classic literature on reasoning by analogy (Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Gentner, 1983) suggests that analogies are typically used to capitalize on the structure of something that is relatively well understood to help explain something unknown.”
BackgroundPavlidou, E. V., & Williams, J. M. (2014) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.040 · Cited by 58
The construction and analogical transfer of symbolic visualizations
Schwartz, D. L. (1993) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660301011 · Cited by 57
Object-based representations: Transfer between cases of continuous and discrete models of change.
Bassok, M., & Solomon, K. O. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.6.1522 · Cited by 60
The History of Computing Education Research
Guzdial, M., & du Boulay, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.002 · Cited by 66
Approaches to Modeling Human Mental Representations: What Works, What Doesn't, and Why.
Doumas, L. A. A., & Hummel, J. E. (2005) · Cited by 57
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.003.0008 · Cited by 59
Thematic relations affect similarity via commonalities.
Golonka, S., & Estes, Z. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0017397 · Cited by 63
Gick, M. L., & McGarry, S. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.3.623 · Cited by 62
Self-citationHuman Cognition and Programming
Ormerod, T. (1990) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-350772-3.50009-4 · Cited by 58
On having complex representations of things: Preschoolers use multiple words for objects and people.
Deák, G. O., & Maratsos, M. P. (1998) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.2.224 · Cited by 57
“…categories is not straightforward, given that many paradigms, such as appearance-reality (Flavell 3 Whereas young children seem at a relative disadvantage in forming and using multiple representations, adults also fall short of ideal mental flexibility (e.g., Duncker, 1945; Gick & Holyoak, 1980).”
BackgroundRepresentational change and analogy: How analogical inferences alter target representations.
Blanchette, I., & Dunbar, K. N. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.4.672 · Cited by 58
Designing Learning Environments That Support Thinking: The Jasper Series as a Case Study
Duffy, T. M., Lowyck, J., Jonassen, D. H., & Welsh, T. M. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-78069-1_2 · Cited by 58
Neuroscientific insights into the development of analogical reasoning
Whitaker, K. J., Vendetti, M. S., Wendelken, C., & Bunge, S. A. (2017) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12531 · Cited by 56
“Across diverse real- world environments, analogies are employed to explain new information (Dunbar & Blanchette, 2001), to solve problems (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983), and to facilitate the learning of new information in educational settings (Richland, Zur, & Holyoak, 2007; Richland & McDonough,…”
BackgroundIntegration of Memory and Reasoning in Analogy-Making: The AMBR Model
Kokinov, B. N., & Petrov, A. A. (2000) · Cited by 57
Similarity Comparisons and Relational Analogies in Parent-Child Conversations About Science Topics
Valle, A., & Callanan, M. A. (2006) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0009 · Cited by 57
“These results are surprising given the low rates of spontaneous analogy retrieval found in experimental studies (e.g., Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Novick, 1988), but they are consistent with the higher incidence reported in a natural setting by Dunbar (1997).”
BackgroundResultThe application of metaphor, analogy, and conceptual models in computer systems
Wozny, L. A. (1989) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1016/0953-5438(89)90015-5 · Cited by 57
Introspecting in the spirit of William James: Comment on Fox, Ericsson, and Best (2011).
Schooler, J. W. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0022390 · Cited by 53
Analogical transfer: From schematic pictures to problem solving
Zhe, C. (1995) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197226 · Cited by 58
Chen, C. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.015 · Cited by 56
Epistemic motives moderate the effect of metaphoric framing on attitudes
Landau, M. J., Keefer, L. A., & Rothschild, Z. K. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.009 · Cited by 56
“In one study (Gick & Holyoak, 1980), participants read a scenario in which an army successfully besieged a well-defended city by splitting up and surrounding it on all sides.”
BackgroundSimplified learning in complex situations: Knowledge partitioning in function learning.
Lewandowsky, S., Kalish, M. L., & Ngang, S. K. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.131.2.163 · Cited by 64
“Changes in cover story (e.g., military vs. medical; Gick & Holyoak, 1980) or instrument (e.g., laser vs. ultrasound; Holyoak & Koh, 1987) are sufficient to prevent people from spontaneously transferring a solution strategy from one problem to another.”
A positional discriminability model of linear-order judgments.
Holyoak, K. J., & Patterson, K. K. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.7.6.1283 · Cited by 61
Self-citationLane, S. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00747.x · Cited by 56
Spontaneous analogical transfer in 4-year-olds: A microgenetic study
Tunteler, E., & Resing, W. C. M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(02)00125-x · Cited by 56
Learning stoichiometry: a comparison of text and multimedia formats
Evans, K. L., Yaron, D., & Leinhardt, G. (2008) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/b812409b · Cited by 56
Knowledge versus experience in financial problem solving performance
Hershey, D. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2000) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-000-1020-x · Cited by 55
Jacobson, M. J., Goldwater, M. B., Markauskaitė, L., et al. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101222 · Cited by 55
Similarity, Uncertainty and Case-Based Reasoning in Patdex
Richter, M. M., & Weß, S. (1991) · Automated reasoning series · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-3488-0_12 · Cited by 55
“The overall process of diagnosis is based on the analogical problem solving algorithm (APS) proposed by [11].”
BackgroundExploring a Conceptual Model-Based Approach to Teaching Situated Word Problems
Xin, Y. P., & Zhang, D. (2009) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.3200/joer.102.6.427-442 · Cited by 55
The role of textual coherence in incremental analogical mapping
Kubose, T. T., Holyoak, K. J., & Hummel, J. E. (2002) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/s0749-596x(02)00011-6 · Cited by 55
“The choice of a dichotomous scoring technique over one that would allow partial credit was based on a similar decision made by Gick and Holyoak (1980), who found that the results were similar regardless of whether scoring was all-or-none or whether partial credit was given.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationHorn, M., & Bers, M. U. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.023 · Cited by 63
Macro‐contexts for learning: Initial findings and issues
Sherwood, R. D., Kinzer, C. K., Hasselbring, T. S., et al. (1987) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2350010203 · Cited by 55
Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder Comprehend Lexicalized and Novel Primary Conceptual Metaphors
Olofson, E. L., Casey, D., Oluyedun, O. A., Herwegen, J. V., Becerra, A., & Rundblad, G. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2129-3 · Cited by 54
“Given the role of analogical reasoning in problem solving (Gick & Holyoak, 1980), it should come as little surprise that research on scientific reasoning in elementary school aged TD children has found that their spontaneously produced metaphors are closely related to learning in science class,…”
BackgroundThis reminds me of the time when …: Expectation failures in reminding and explanation
Read, S. J., & Cesa, I. L. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(91)90008-t · Cited by 54
Negation without symbols: the importance of recurrence and context in linguistic negation
Huette, S., & Anderson, S. (2012) · Journal of Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.1142/s0219635212500239 · Cited by 55
Instructional analogies and the learning of concepts
Newby, T. J., Ertmer, P. A., & Stepich, D. A. (1995) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02300478 · Cited by 54
Leiser, D. (2001) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0732-118x(01)00007-1 · Cited by 56
“Moreover, retrieval cues tend to be superficial only (Brown, 1989; Gentner, Rattermann, & Forbus, 1993; Gentner & Toupin, 1986; Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Holyoak, Novick, & Meltz, 1994; Morton, Hammersley, & Bekerian, 1985).”
Firm Experience and Market Entry by Venture Capital Firms (1962–2004)
Dimov, D. P., & de Holan, P. M. (2009) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00869.x · Cited by 53
The Incubation Effect: Illusion or Illumination?
Browne, B. A., & Cruse, D. (1988) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup0103_3 · Cited by 54
Cognition and the Creation of Ideas
Smith, S. M., & Ward, T. B. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0023 · Cited by 57
Performance Benefits From Providing Assistance in Networks: Relationships That Generate Learning
Shah, N. P., Cross, R., & Levin, D. Z. (2015) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206315584822 · Cited by 58
“This is consistent with prior research showing that 0% to 10% of people can solve this problem without analogical reasoning or hints (Gick & Holyoak, 1980).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDesign patterns for clinical guidelines
Peleg, M., & Tu, S. W. (2009) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2009.05.004 · Cited by 53
“Results from an experiment in analogical problem solving conducted by Gick and Holyoak [60] demonstrated that people can develop a solution to a problem by using an analogous problem that they recall from memory and its solution, provided they are given a hint to use the analogous problem to help solve the problem.”
BackgroundLuo, J., Yan, B., & Wood, K. L. (2017) · Journal of Mechanical Design · doi:10.1115/1.4037680 · Cited by 53
Keane, M. T. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755671 · Cited by 54
“Gick and Holyoak (1980) gave subjects an analogous story about a general attacking a fortress.”
BackgroundMarcus, M., Haden, C. A., & Uttal, D. H. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2018.06.003 · Cited by 53
Walker, C. M., Bridgers, S., & Alison Gopnik, C. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.07.008 · Cited by 57
“…evidence that they hold both objects and relations in mind (e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Christie & Gentner, 2014; Christie, Gentner, Vosniadou, & Kayser, 2007; Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983; Markman & Gentner, 1993; Needham & Begg, 1991; Vendetti, Wu, & Holyoak, 2014).”
The role of causal models in analogical inference.
Lee, H. S., & Holyoak, K. J. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0012581 · Cited by 51
“…include the Rutherford–Bohr model of the atom as an analog of the solar system (Gentner, 1983), the wave theory of sound derived from the behavior of water waves (Holyoak & Thagard, 1995), and the solution to a problem involving radiation therapy based on a military strategy (Gick & Holyoak, 1980).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Role of Metacognitive Activities in the Contextual Use of Primary Pupils' Conceptions of Science
Georghiades, P. (2006) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-004-3954-8 · Cited by 52
Supporting Creative Problem Solving with a Case-Based Reasoning System
Althuizen, N., & Wierenga, B. (2014) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.2753/mis0742-1222310112 · Cited by 54
“Nonetheless, retrieving relevant knowledge from less accessible parts of memory can be difficult for people [33].”
BackgroundRecognition Memory, Familiarity, and Déjà vu Experiences
Cleary, A. M. (2008) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00605.x · Cited by 52
“Some research suggests that actual moments of insight can result from the detection of an analogical relationship between an unsolved problem and a situation in memory (Gick & Holyoak, 1980).”
BackgroundThe explanatory role of spontaneously generated analogies in reasoning about physiological concepts
Kaufman, D. R., Patel, V. L., & Magder, S. A. (1996) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/0950069960180309 · Cited by 52
Case-based knowledge and induction
Gilboa, I., & Schmeidler, D. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics - Part A Systems and Humans · doi:10.1109/3468.833090 · Cited by 52
“(See [2], [3], and [27], among others.”
Curriculum learning for human compositional generalization
Dekker, R., Otto, F., & Summerfield, C. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2205582119 · Cited by 63
“Prior exposure to test items with common structure sometimes improves performance, but appeals to transfer have proved hard to disentangle from more mundane explanations that rely on hints or implicit instructions from the researcher (7, 8).”
BackgroundThe Role of Context and Team Play in Cross-Game Learning
Cooper, D. J., & Kagel, J. H. (2009) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1162/jeea.2009.7.5.1101 · Cited by 51
“The consensus from this literature is that positive transfer usually fails except when environments are perceived to be quite similar (Gick and Holyoak 1980; Perkins and Salomon 1988; Salomon and Perkins 1989).”
Lewandowsky, S., Little, D. R., & Kalish, M. L. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470713181.ch4 · Cited by 54
Christensen, B. T., & Ball, L. J. (2016) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2016.07.004 · Cited by 49
“The experimental literature on analogy has found that superficially similar source and target problems facilitate analogical retrieval (Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; see also Bearman, Ball, & Ormerod, 2007, for corroboratory evidence from real-world research).”
BackgroundA Course in Pictorial and Multimodal Metaphor
Forceville, C. J. (2008) · Cited by 51
Chai, C., Cen, F., Ruan, W., Yang, C., & Li, H. (2014) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2014.07.001 · Cited by 50
Promoting Positive Transfer of Different Types
Butterfield, E. C., & Nelson, G. D. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0801_3 · Cited by 50
Four-dimensional consideration of feedback in serious games
Dunwell, I., & de Freitas, S. (2011) · Murdoch University Research Portal · Cited by 51
Relational Integration in the Human Brain: A Review and Synthesis
Holyoak, K. J., & Monti, M. M. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01619 · Cited by 53
“However, a full understanding of human relational reasoning will require investigation of more complex and naturalistic analogies based on stories and other meaningful inputs (e.g., Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Holyoak, Keith J.
- ORCID
- Holyoak, Keith J.
- Venue
- Cognitive Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1980-07
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 306-355
- ISSN
- 0010-0285 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1980169328
- Semantic Scholar
- 02c43f91ee87bf2968b57159d1cdc33dc3b1ed10
- Cited by
- 2,552
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 96 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 133 · 2018: 70 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 91 · 2015: 78 · 2014: 104 · 2013: 104 · 2012: 98
- FWCI
- 11.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Cognitive Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (7701211)
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Language, Metaphor, and Cognition
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI-based Problem Solving and Planning
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- analogical problem solving, analogical reasoning, transfer of learning, distractor interference, problem-solving strategies
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