Mutagenic activity of chloramines

Abstract

Mutagenesis by chloramines and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) was studied to determine whether these agents could contribute to the mutagenic and potentially carcinogenic activity of stimulated leukocytes and whether environmental exposure to these agents is a cause for concern. Mutagenic activity was measured using the S. typhimurium TA97a, TA100 and TA102 tester strains. Because chloramines and HOCl are bactericidal, react rapidly with cell components, and can destroy the histidine and biotin required for the mutagenesis assay, activity can't be compared directly with that of less toxic or reactive agents. Nevertheless, chloramines were mutagenic when tested under appropriate conditions. TA100 was the most sensitive strain, and the most active mutagens were lipophilic dichloramines (RNCl2) including derivatives of histamine, ethanolamine and putrescine. Lipophilic monochloramines (RNHCl) such as histamine-monochloramine and NH2Cl were less active. Hydrophilic chloramines such as taurine-chloramines had low activity, and HOCl was inactive. The metabolic state of the bacteria was critical. Chloramines were mutagenic when added to bacteria with glucose at 37 degrees C, but killing predominated when chloramines were added at 4 degrees C or 25 degrees C, or at 37 degrees C without glucose. Production of chloramines and HOCl by leukocytes in vivo could contribute to the association of chronic inflammation and cancer as a result of: (1) the entry of membrane-permeable chloramines into normal cells followed by attack on intracellular components including DNA, and (2) the production of secondary mutagens such as compounds with carbonyl groups or carbon-chlorine bonds. On the other hand, chlorination of water supplies is perhaps more likely to destroy than create mutagens, and chloramines from the environment are unlikely to penetrate the skin and mucous membranes.