The DOI matches its Crossref record; 21 of the 23 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 16 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia
Open accessAbstract
Clinically, there is wide subscription to emotional processing theory (EPT; Foa & Kozak, 1986) as a model of therapeutic effectiveness of exposure therapy: EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH). This study examined these assumptions, using in vivo exposure therapy for 44 students scoring high on acrophobia measures. Results indicated that no EPT variables were consistently predictive of treatment outcome. No support was found for IFA or WSH; measures of BSH were predictive of short-term change, but these effects were attenuated at follow-up. Furthermore, EPT variables were not predictive of each other as previously hypothesized, indicating the variables are not functionally related.
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Claims the paper makes
2 of 16 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though participants did not show significant decreases in average heart rate during the BAT (F (1,2) < 1, p = .58).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, no relationship was found between WSH and BSH.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, neither HR-WSH nor SUDS-WSH significantly predicted any outcome change measure, in either baseline-immediate or baseline-post.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Neither SUDS-IFA nor HR-IFA significantly predicted any outcome change measure, across baseline-immediate or baseline-post.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicated that no EPT variables were consistently predictive of treatment outcome.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Correlations among the six measures of emotional processing theory (see Table 3) yielded only two significant results: HR-IFA correlated significantly with HR-WSH (r = .462, p =.003), and SUDS-IFA correlated significantly with SUDS-WSH (r = .528, p =.000).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant differences were found between the two groups, so they were collapsed for the purposes of this paper.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Methods > Procedure
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Beyond that, the amount of unique variance that is explained by WSH was miniscule (ranging from 0 to 4.7%).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
In the paper
“EPT has found scant support over the twenty-plus years in existence (see Craske et al., 2008 for review), and this study was unable to produce any results that support the over-arching theory.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Craske et al., 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would seem to suggest that EPT is not a viable explanation of the mechanism of change in exposure therapy, and further research should look to uncover possible alternative theories to explain this phenomenon.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 11
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“BSH is purported to form the basis for long term learning, and to be mediated by changes in the meaning proposition, in the form of lowered probability of harm (i.e., risk) and lessened negativity (i.e., valence) of the stimulus.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited Foa and Kozak (1986) paper returned no open-access snippets, so its full text could not be checked directly. A snippet from “Current State of the Art in Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder” closely matches the claim: it says between-session habituation forms the basis for long-term learning through changed meaning, lowered expectation of harm, and lessened negativity (score 0.427). That passage attributes the emotional-processing account to Foa and colleagues, supporting this as a paraphrase of the cited theory rather than a misattribution. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“WSH is considered a necessary pre-requisite for the second piece of incompatible information, which derives from between-session habituation (BSH) over repeated occasions of exposure.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited Foa and Kozak (1986) paper returned no searchable full-text snippets, so the wording cannot be checked directly. A snippet from “Current State of the Art in Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder” states, “Within-session habituation is a necessary prerequisite for between-session habituation” (score 0.721) in its account of Foa and colleagues’ emotional-processing theory. That supports attribution of the claim as a theoretical premise, though the same review says later evidence did not establish the premise empirically. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SUDS-BSH predicted change in AQ scores from baseline to immediate (ΔR2 = .151, p = .009), but not from baseline to post (ΔR2 = .039, p = .199).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“HR-BSH predicted change in HR during BAT from baseline to immediate (ΔR2 = .307, p = .000), but not baseline to post (ΔR2 = .001, p = .854).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SUDS-IFA correlated significantly with SUDS-WSH (r = .528, p =.000).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“HR-IFA correlated significantly with HR-WSH (r = .462, p =.003)”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SUDS-BSH predicted change in SUDS-maximum during BAT from baseline to immediate (ΔR2 = .273, p = .000) and from baseline to post (ΔR2 = .187, p = .002).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
In the paper
“The mean acrophobia fear score on the AQ was 62.63 (SD = 13.33) (maximum score = 120), which is comparable to a clinical sample (61.30, SD = 15.85; Cohen, 1977).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, 1977 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall the treatment was found to be effective, with participants showing significant change in the subjective outcome variables of AQ (F (1,2) = 62.32, p <.001) and SUDS during the BAT (F (1,2) = 64.46, p <.001).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average exposure duration across both sessions was 21.27 minutes (SD = 17.25), though there was a large range in total exposure time, so it was used as a covariate in all analyses.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Results > Pre-treatment Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“A ‘fear structure’, as first put forth by Lang (1971), is a set of propositions about a stimulus (e.g., spider), response (e.g., racing heart) and their meaning (e.g., “I will be poisoned”) that are stored in memory.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lang, 1971
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“EPT purports that the effects of exposure therapy derive from activation of a ‘fear structure’ and integration of information that is incompatible with it, resulting in the development of a non-fear structure that replaces (Foa & Kozak, 1986) or competes with (Foa & McNally, 1996) the original one.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 source
- Not checked yetcites Foa & McNally, 1996
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“EPT purports that exposure is maximal when (1) fear is activated (IFA), (2) fear subsides within sessions (WSH), and (3) fear subsides between sessions (BSH).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Foa & Kozak, 1986 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results raise serious doubts about the role of within-session habituation as a mechanism of change, and while between-session habituation may have some limited effects immediately, there appear to be other more important factors that play into long-term results of exposure therapy.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
- Rests on an assumption: The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
In the paper
“Differential autonomic conditioning in particular is strongly associated with verbal measures of contingency knowledge (e.g., Purkis & Lipp, 2001).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Purkis & Lipp, 2001
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Expectancies also are important for extinction; extinction is posited to follow from a mismatch between the expectancy of an aversive event and the absence of its occurrence (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972), or from the perception of a negative change in the rate at which aversive events are associated with the CS (Gallistel & Gibbon, 2000).”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rescorla & Wagner, 1972
- Not checked yetcites Gallistel & Gibbon, 2000
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is especially problematic for EPT, as WSH is presumed to be a necessary prerequisite for BSH.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, contingency awareness (i.e., knowledge that a specific CS predicts a US), although of debatable necessity for conditioned responding (e.g., Lovibond & Shanks, 2002, versus Ohman & Mineka, 2001) is a strong correlate of conditioned responding.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lovibond & Shanks, 2002
- Not checked yetcites Ohman & Mineka, 2001 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These data have been interpreted to suggest that durations of a continuous CS presentation during extinction that exceed the length of the CS during acquisition induces extinction learning most effectively by violating the temporal expectancy of the US, and that once induced, extinction learning is best consolidated with spaced training.”
§ Does Habituation Matter? Emotional Processing Theory and Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Heart rate is a valid index of fear responding during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
“Heart rate data were collected continuously throughout the 2-minute anticipatory phase and the BAT using a Polar Vantage NV that provides wireless heart-rate monitoring with ECG-accurate continuous measurement, sampling once every five seconds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SUDS ratings are a valid measure of subjective fear during exposure and the behavioral avoidance test.
“Subjective Units of Distress (SUDS; 0–100) and self efficacy (0–100) (confidence in being able to complete the task successfully) were each rated after a 2-minute anticipatory period and before initiating the BAT.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalization of IFA, WSH, and BSH using peak or quartile differences in HR and SUDS adequately captures the theoretical constructs.
“IFA was operationalized as the peak in HR or SUDS score in the first quartile, or minute whichever was longer, of the first exposure session.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Other studies have demonstrated no effect of within- or between-session distress reduction on changes in anxiety following exposure therapy (Baker et al., 2010; Peterman et al., 2019).”
From Are within- and between-session changes in distress associated with treatment outcomes? Findings from two clinical trials of exposure for eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as Baker et al., 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Recently, there has been considerable debate over the necessity of between-session habituation in individuals undergoing exposure therapy (Baker et al., 2010; Craske et al., 2008).”
From Does change in distress matter? Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure for PTSD (2014) · cites this paper as Baker et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In VRET, presence is likely a moderator of intervention effects: an adequate sense of presence could arguably be considered a prerequisite for evoking a fear response that can then be attenuated through the same mechanisms as in traditional exposure therapy [37].”
From Experiences of gamified and automated virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia: qualitative study (2020) · cites this paper as [37]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value: F (1,2) = 64.46, p < .001
MinorThe paper reports p < .001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .015. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .015
“F (1,2) = 64.46, p <.001”
Inconsistent p-value: F (1,2) = 62.32, p < .001
MinorThe paper reports p < .001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .016. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .016
“F (1,2) = 62.32, p <.001”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 2) = 62.32reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .016
“F (1,2) = 62.32, p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 2) = 64.46reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .015
“F (1,2) = 64.46, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 2) < 1reported p = .58 · recomputed p = .423
“F (1,2) < 1, p = .58”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Abstract denies relationships that the results report
MinorThe abstract says the EPT variables are not related to one another, but the results report significant correlations between initial fear activation and within-session habituation for both heart rate and distress ratings.
“Furthermore, EPT variables were not predictive of each other as previously hypothesized, indicating the variables are not functionally related.”
“Correlations among the six measures of emotional processing theory (see Table 3) yielded only two significant results: HR-IFA correlated significantly with HR-WSH (r = .462, p =.003), and SUDS-IFA correlated significantly with SUDS-WSH (r = .528, p =.000).”
Citations
Cites
Rescorla, R. A. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,268
Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20 · Cited by 5,396
Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change
Garfield, S. L., Bergin, A. E., & Dryden, W. (1987) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.1.4.264a · Cited by 3,998
Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning
Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.483 · Cited by 3,147 · cited 1×
“For example, contingency awareness (i.e., knowledge that a specific CS predicts a US), although of debatable necessity for conditioned responding (e.g., Lovibond & Shanks, 2002, versus Ohman & Mineka, 2001) is a strong correlate of conditioned responding.”
BackgroundHandbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change
Sanford, E. F. (1988) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1988.42.1.153 · Cited by 2,586
Habituation: a dual-process theory.
Groves, P. M., & Thompson, R. F. (1970) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/h0029810 · Cited by 2,110
Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy
Craske, M. G., Kircanski, K., Zelikowsky, M., Mystkowski, J., Chowdhury, N., & Baker, A. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.003 · Cited by 1,607
Self-citationGallistel, C. R., & Gibbon, J. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.2.289 · Cited by 1,134
Principles of psychophysiology : physical, social, and inferential elements
Cacioppo, J. T., & Tassinary, L. G. (1990) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · Cited by 780
The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications.
Lovibond, P. F., & Shanks, D. R. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.28.1.3 · Cited by 725
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 23 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–159 of 159
Graded-Modelle – eine Einführung
Matheve, T., de Baets, L., Moog, M., Hasenbring, M., & Levenig, C. (2023) · MSK – Muskuloskelettale Physiotherapie · doi:10.1055/a-2013-4773 · Cited by 6
Meta-cognitive therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder
Melchior, K. (2008) · Mental Health Practice · doi:10.7748/mhp.11.10.25.s32 · Cited by 5
Ong, C. W., Sheehan, K. G., Xu, J., Falkenstein, M. J., & Kuckertz, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.089 · Cited by 6
The role of safety signals in fear extinction: An analogue study
Restrepo-Castro, J. C., Castro-Camacho, L., & Labrador, F. J. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.04.003 · Cited by 4
Optimierung expositionsbasierter Therapie: Ein Ansatz des inhibitorischen Lernens
Pittig, A., Stevens, S. S., Vervliet, B., Treanor, M., Conway, C., Zbozinek, T. D., & Craske, M. G. (2015) · Psychotherapeut · Cited by 4
Self-citationLevy, H. C., Goldblum, R. S., Mullins, J., & Tolin, D. F. (2023) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2022-0012 · Cited by 4
André, S. T. D. S., Heinig, I., Arolt, V., Bartnick, C., Dannlowski, U., Deckert, J., Domschke, K., Fydrich, T., Goerigk, S. A., Hamm, A. O., et al. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104856 · Cited by 3
Identifying Patterns in Complex Field Data
White, A. J., Kleinböhl, D., Lang�, T., Hamm, A. O., Gerlach, A. L., & Alpers, G. W. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000310 · Cited by 3
Anxiety Disorder in Youth: Separation Anxiety, Social Anxiety, and Generalized Anxiety Disorders
Hughes, M. E., Mohatt, J. W., Bennett, S. M., & Walkup, J. T. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118753378.ch53 · Cited by 3
Fracalanza, K. (2021) · doi:10.32920/ryerson.14657616.v1 · Cited by 4
Common Treatment Elements of Manualized Evidence-Based Treatments for Youth Anxiety Disorders
Cepeda, S. L., Grassie, H. L., & Ehrenreich-May, J. (2022) · Advances in Psychiatry and Behavioral Health · doi:10.1016/j.ypsc.2022.06.005 · Cited by 2
Kooistra, M. J., Oprel, D. A. C., Schoorl, M., van der Does, W. A. J., & de Kleine, R. A. (2025) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2025.06.001 · Cited by 2
Mitchell, B. J., Braley, E. I., Jagannathan, N., Goodman, W. K., Storch, E. A., & Wiese, A. D. (2025) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2025-0033 · Cited by 2
Landowska, A. (2018) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford) · Cited by 2
Butler, R. M., Christian, C., Girard, J. M., Vanzhula, I. A., & Levinson, C. A. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104577 · Cited by 1
Exposure Therapy for Phobia Treatment
Guo, R. (2021) · Advances in economics, business and management research/Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.211209.253 · Cited by 1
Conquer Fear of Heights Using Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy With Cognitive Restructuring
Faizah, M., Ramdhani, N., & Utami, M. S. (2024) · Gadjah Mada Journal of Professional Psychology (GamaJPP) · doi:10.22146/gamajpp.89156 · Cited by 1
Kellner, M. B., Yassouridis, A., Muhtz, C., & Wiedemann, K. (2024) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_566_24 · Cited by 1
Inhibitory control training might be a gateway to enhance fear extinction
Dar, K. F., & Asthana, M. K. (2026) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2026.113335 · Cited by 1
Zbozinek, T. D., Rosenberg, B. M., Treanor, M., & Craske, M. G. (2026) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2026.105040 · Cited by 3
Self-citationLee, C. S., Wadsworth, L. P., & Hayes‐Skelton, S. A. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.07.006 · Cited by 1
Funkhouser, C. J., Katz, A. C., Meissel, E. E. E., Stevens, E. S., Weinberg, A., Nabb, C. B., & Shankman, S. A. (2022) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-022-00121-w · Cited by 1
Koç, M., Çolak, T. S., Sapancı, A., Kelek, Ş., & Koç, G. (2024) · Journal of Human Sciences · doi:10.14687/jhs.v21i4.6499
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia
Brown, L. A., & Craske, M. G. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118877142.ch4 · Cited by 1
Self-citationVigilance: A Novel Conditioned Fear Response that Resists ExtinctionPreprint
Armstrong, T., Engel, M., & Dalmaijer, E. S. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4ct8x · Cited by 1
The role of expectancy violation in extinction learning: a two-day online fear conditioning studyPreprint
Gromer, D., Hildebrandt, L. K., & Stegmann, Y. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fzsw5 · Cited by 1
The Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Collins, L. M., Bragdon, L. B., & Coles, M. E. (2018) · Evidence‐Based Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/9781119462996.ch6 · Cited by 1
Follow‐Up with Evaluation and Support
Frueh, B. C., Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., & Ford, J. D. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118470138.ch13
Bluett, E. J. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/b37f-91cf
Improving human reactivity to trauma exposure using affect labeling
Brown, L. A. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Does acupressure potentiate the effect of imagery exposure on posttraumatic stress disorder
Elverum, T. (2011) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Methodological approaches to the ambulatory assessment of anxiety during situational exposure
White, A. J. (2014) · MADOC (University of Mannheim)
Yeryomenko, N. (2017) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor)
Schyns (2018) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20180209gs
The Art and Science of Therapeutic Innovation: Hope for PTSD Sufferers Today and Tomorrow
Jensen, M. (2019) · Palgrave studies in life writing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-06106-7_7
Smith, B. M. (2019) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/9g7h-e218
Deepening extinction in a virtual reality treatment for fear of heights
McInerney, J. (2019)
Expositionstherapie in virtueller Realität: Wirksamkeit, Wirkmechanismen und Durchführung
Gromer, D., & Pauli, P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-63457-8_2
(2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815915-6.00022-6
Guan, L. C. (2020) · Faculty Opinions – Post-Publication Peer Review of the Biomedical Literature · doi:10.3410/f.733875167.793572161
Exposure therapy based on an inhibitory learning approach: A systematic review
Sato, T., Tanaka, T., & Maeda, S. (2023) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.94.21405
The Impact of Exposure Therapy on Cancer-Related Future Cognitions in Severe Health Anxiety
Brier, N., & Brown, L. A. (2023) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2023.07.001
Kennair, L. E. O., Lindner, M., Hagen, K., & Larsen, S. M. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544754.013.59
Social Anxiety Disorder, Public Speaking Anxiety and Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
Konstantinou, T., & Panayiotou, G. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_6
Deep learning approach to predict developmental outcomes of non-suicidal self-injury: An ERP studyPreprint
Yin, F., Si, F., Jiang, W., Huo, S., Wang, B., Liu, L., Yang, N., & Cao, J. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784879/v1
Using Inhibitory Learning Theories to Optimise Treatment for Children with Anxiety Disorders
Chen, W., Aji, M., Lim, C. Y. S., Songco, A., & Hudson, J. L. (2024) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2024_553
Hilleke, M., Lang�, T., Helbig‐Lang, S., Alpers, G. W., Arolt, V., Deckert, J., Fydrich, T., Hamm, A. O., Kircher, T. T. J., Richter, J., et al. (2025) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/da/6963860
Yin, F., Si, F., Jiang, W., Huo, S., Wang, B., Yang, N., & Cao, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1564049
Nadel, M. H., Rogers, K., Hadlock, S., Schuler, E. R., & Haaga, D. A. F. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.70032
Emotion Regulation Therapy (ERT) I: Historical and Theoretical Frameworks
Szkutak, A., Anene, E. T., Mennin, D. S., & Fresco, D. M. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-00353-9_11
Unified Protocols for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Halliday, E. R., & Ehrenreich, J. T. (2026) · Neuromethods · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-5134-6_15
Affect Labeling and Reappraisal as an Emotion Regulation Strategy
Ariely, Y., Mokady, A., Reggev, N., & Anholt, G. E. (2026) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-026-00362-z · Cited by 1
Walker, D. C., Chen, M., Reilly, E. E., Morison, J. N., & Anderson, L. M. (2026) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.70096
Roisenberg, B. B., Boulton, K., Thomas, E. E., Yu, D., & Guastella, A. J. (2026) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70268
Salloum, A., Metts, A. V., Echiverri-Cohen, A. M., Salomon, K., Ruiz, J., & Storch, E. A. (2026) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-026-09958-9
Engaging citizens? The role of negativity and incivility on politicians’ social media
Muraille, J., & Poljak, Ž. (2026) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-026-00430-z
Kellner, M. B., Mareljic, M. S., & Yassouridis, A. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm15176735
Metadata
- Authors
- Baker, A., Mystkowski, J., Culver, N., Yi, R., Mortazavi, A., & Craske, M. G.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Claremont Graduate University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baker, Aaron
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-11
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1139-1143
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2956764
- OpenAlex
- W2093146307
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 5.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH072259)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- emotional processing theory, exposure therapy, acrophobia, fear extinction, in vivo exposure, treatment outcome prediction
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Desensitization, Psychologic, Emotions, Female, Habituation, Psychophysiologic, Humans, Implosive Therapy, Male, Phobic Disorders, Surveys and Questionnaires, Severity of Illness Index, Treatment Outcome, Young Adult
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