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Limestone and silica powder replacements for cement: Early-age performance
Open accessAbstract
Developing functional concrete mixtures with less ordinary portland cement (OPC) has been one of the key objectives of the 21 st century sustainability movement. While the supplies of many alternatives to OPC (such as fly ash or slag) may be limited, those of limestone and silica powders produced by crushing rocks seem virtually endless. The present study examines the chemical and physical influences of these powders on the rheology, hydration, and setting of cement-based materials via experiments and three-dimensional microstructural modeling. It is shown that both limestone and silica particle surfaces are active templates (sites) for the nucleation and growth of cement hydration products, while the limestone itself is also somewhat soluble, leading to the formation of carboaluminate hydration products. Because the filler particles are incorporated as active members of the percolated backbone that constitutes initial setting of a cement-based system, replacements of up to 50 % of the OPC by either of these powders on a volumetric basis have minimal impact on the initial setting time, and even a paste with only 5 % OPC and 95 % limestone powder by volume achieves initial set within 24 h. While their influence on setting is similar, the limestone and silica powders produce pastes with quite different rheological properties, when substituted at the same volume level. When proceeding from setting to later age strength development, one must also consider the dilution of the system due to cement removal, along with the solubility/reactivity of the filler. However, for applications where controlled (prompt) setting is more critical than developing high strengths, such as mortar tile adhesives, grouts, and renderings, significant levels of these powder replacements for cement can serve as sustainable, functional alternatives to the oft-employed 100 % OPC products.
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Similar strength enhancement trends in blended or particle-modified binder systems have been associated with filler effects, improved packing, and secondary hydration products.
“Similar strength enhancement trends in blended or particle-modified binder systems have been associated with filler effects, improved packing, and secondary hydration products [3, 4, 13, 14].”
From Mechanical Properties and Chloride Penetration Resistance of Low-Carbon Concrete with Blended Binder Systems (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
The Results, ‘Implications for Strength’ (page unavailable), associate limestone and silica fillers with extra heat release beyond cement dilution, used as a proxy for strength; they also suggest that carboaluminates may enhance strength in limestone mixtures. The paper measures particle packing in Materials and Methods, ‘Mixture proportions’ (page unavailable), but does not link improved packing to strength enhancement. Its strength inference is not a direct strength measurement. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThese materials can improve concrete performance through physical filler effects, pozzolanic reactions, and latent hydraulic reactions, depending on their chemical and mineralogical characteristics.
“These materials can also improve concrete performance through physical filler effects, pozzolanic reactions, and latent hydraulic reactions, depending on their chemical and mineralogical characteristics [3, 4].”
From Mechanical Properties and Chloride Penetration Resistance of Low-Carbon Concrete with Blended Binder Systems (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
The Conclusions (page not specified in our copy) support a physical filler effect: limestone and silica powders provide surfaces for cement hydration products and help maintain setting times. The Abstract also reports some limestone dissolution and carboaluminate formation. Neither passage supports the attributed pozzolanic or latent hydraulic reactions. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe interpretation is consistent with the role of SCMs and fine powders in modifying the interfacial transition zone and pore structure.
“The interpretation is consistent with the role of SCMs and fine powders in modifying the interfacial transition zone and pore structure [3, 4].”
From Mechanical Properties and Chloride Penetration Resistance of Low-Carbon Concrete with Blended Binder Systems (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
The Results (Setting time; Computer Modeling Results, page unavailable) report that fine limestone and silica powders provide surfaces for hydration products and that filler particles participate in the developing, percolated microstructure. Our copy does not establish that these powders modify the interfacial transition zone or pore structure specifically, and its findings about these powders do not establish that role for SCMs generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bentz, D. P., Ferraris, C. F., Jones, S. Z., Lootens, D., & Zunino, F.
- Affiliations
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bentz, Dale P.
- Venue
- Cement and Concrete Composites
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-04
- Volume
- 78
- Pages
- 43-56
- ISSN
- 0958-9465 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5424712
- OpenAlex
- W2568303131
- Cited by
- 255
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 19.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cement and Concrete Composites (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and the Chilean Ministry of EducationPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and the Chilean Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) (PUC1202)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete and Cement Materials Research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete Properties and Behavior
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Magnesium Oxide Properties and Applications
- Keywords
- limestone powder, silica powder, partial cement replacement, ordinary Portland cement, early-age performance, cement hydration, setting time, rheology, carboaluminate phases, nucleation and growth, filler particles, microstructure modeling, sustainable construction materials, grout, rendering
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