The role of receptor binding specificity in interspecies transmission of influenza viruses
Open accessAbstract
Influenza A virus infection begins with the binding of the hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein to sialic acid-containing receptors on the surface of the target cell. Avian influenza viruses, including avian H5N1, H7, and H9N2 viruses, can occasionally cross the species barrier and infect humans; however, these viruses do not spread efficiently from person to person, perhaps, partly, owing to differences in the receptor-binding specificities of human and avian influenza viruses. The HAs of avian influenza viruses must adapt to receptors in humans to acquire efficient human-to-human transmissibility. In this review, we discuss the receptor binding specificity of influenza A viruses and its role in interspecies transmission.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Typically, the influenza virus binds to α2,6-linked sialic acid and α2,3-linked sialic acid found on epithelial cells of the upper and lower respiratory tract.
“Typically, the virus binds to α2,6-linked sialic acid and α2,3-linked sialic acid found on epithelial cells of the upper and lower respiratory tract [92].”
From Viral meningitis: an overview (2021) · cites this paper as [92]
The receptor-binding specificity section says influenza HA binds sialic-acid-containing glycans on epithelial cells, but distinguishes human strains, which preferentially bind α2,6-linked receptors, from avian strains, which prefer α2,3-linked receptors. It reports predominantly α2,6-linked receptors in the human upper respiratory tract; it does not establish the claimed receptor distribution in the lower respiratory tract. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses
Webster, R. G., Bean, W. J., Gorman, O. T., Chambers, T. M., & Kawaoka, Y. (1992) · Microbiological Reviews · doi:10.1128/mr.56.1.152-179.1992 · Cited by 4,739 · see citing works
Self-citationReceptor Binding and Membrane Fusion in Virus Entry: The Influenza Hemagglutinin
Skehel, J. J., & Wiley, D. C. (2000) · Annual Review of Biochemistry · doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.531 · Cited by 2,706 · see citing works
Fouchier, R. A. M., Munster, V. J., Wallensten, A., Bestebroer, T. M., Herfst, S., Smith, D. J., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Olsén, B., & Osterhaus, A. D. M. E. (2005) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.79.5.2814-2822.2005 · Cited by 1,565 · see citing works
Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus
Claas, E. C. J., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., van Beek, R., de Jong, J. C., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Senne, D. A., Krauss, S. L., Shortridge, K. F., & Webster, R. G. (1998) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)11212-0 · Cited by 1,420 · see citing works
Influenza virus receptors in the human airway
Shinya, K., Ebina, M., Yamada, S., Ono, M., Kasai, N., & Kawaoka, Y. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/440435a · Cited by 1,398 · see citing works
Self-citationSubbarao, K., Klimov, A. I., Katz, J. M., Regnery, H. L., Lim, W., Hall, H. E., Perdue, M. L., Swayne, D. E., Bender, C. A., Huang, J., et al. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.279.5349.393 · Cited by 1,362 · see citing works
Molecular Basis for High Virulence of Hong Kong H5N1 Influenza A Viruses
Hatta, M., Gao, P., Halfmann, P., & Kawaoka, Y. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062882 · Cited by 1,336 · see citing works
Self-citationFouchier, R. A. M., Schneeberger, P. M., Rozendaal, F. W., Broekman, J. M., Kemink, S. A. G., Munster, V. J., Kuiken, T., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Schutten, M., van Doornum, G. J. J., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0308352100 · Cited by 1,085 · see citing works
Human infection with influenza H9N2
Peiris, M. J. S., Yuen, K., Leung, C., et al. (1999) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(99)03311-5 · Cited by 1,035 · see citing works
Molecular Basis for the Generation in Pigs of Influenza A Viruses with Pandemic Potential
Ito, T., Couceiro, J. N. D. S. S., Kelm, S., Baum, L. G., Krauss, S. L., Castrucci, M. R., Donatelli, I., Kida, H., Paulson, J. C., Webster, R. G., et al. (1998) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.72.9.7367-7373.1998 · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
Self-citationRogers, G. N., & Paulson, J. C. (1983) · Virology · doi:10.1016/0042-6822(83)90150-2 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
Structure and Receptor Specificity of the Hemagglutinin from an H5N1 Influenza Virus
Stevens, J., Blixt, O., Tumpey, T. M., Taubenberger, J. K., Paulson, J. C., & Wilson, I. A. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1124513 · Cited by 941 · see citing works
Probable Person-to-Person Transmission of Avian Influenza A (H5N1)
Ungchusak, K., Auewarakul, P., Dowell, S. F., Kitphati, R., Auwanit, W., Puthavathana, P., Uiprasertkul, M., Boonnak, K., Pittayawonganon, C., Cox, N. J., et al. (2005) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa044021 · Cited by 868 · see citing works
Glycan-based interactions involving vertebrate sialic-acid-recognizing proteins
Varki, A. P. (2007) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05816 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Matrosovich, M. N., Tuzikov, A. B., Bovin, N. V., Gambaryan, A. S., Klimov, A. I., Castrucci, M. R., Donatelli, I., & Kawaoka, Y. (2000) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.74.18.8502-8512.2000 · Cited by 852 · see citing works
Self-citationAvian Influenza A (H5N1) in 10 Patients in Vietnam
Hien, T. T., Liem, N. T., Dung, N. T., Luong, S. T., Mai, P. P., Châu, N. V. V., Suu, P. T., Dong, V. C., Mai, L. T. Q., Thi, N. T., et al. (2004) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa040419 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Koopmans, M., Wilbrink, B., Conyn, M., Natrop, G., van der Nat, H., Vennema, H., Meijer, A., van Steenbergen, J., Fouchier, R. A. M., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., et al. (2004) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(04)15589-x · Cited by 829 · see citing works
Receptor Specificity in Human, Avian, and Equine H2 and H3 Influenza Virus Isolates
Connor, R., Kawaoka, Y., Webster, R. G., & Paulson, J. C. (1994) · Virology · doi:10.1006/viro.1994.1615 · Cited by 782 · see citing works
Self-citationH5N1 Virus Attachment to Lower Respiratory Tract
van Riel, D. A. J., Munster, V. J., de Wit, E., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Fouchier, R. A. M., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., & Kuiken, T. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1125548 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Single amino acid substitutions in influenza haemagglutinin change receptor binding specificity
Rogers, G. N., Paulson, J. C., Daniels, R. S., et al. (1983) · Nature · doi:10.1038/304076a0 · Cited by 680 · see citing works
Yamada, S., Suzuki, Y., Suzuki, T., Le, M. Q., Nidom, C. A., Sakai‐Tagawa, Y., Muramoto, Y., Ito, M., Kiso, M., Horimoto, T., et al. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05264 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Self-citationLin, Y. P., Shaw, M. W., Gregory, V., Cameron, K. R., Lim, W. W. L., Klimov, A. I., Subbarao, K., Guan, Y., Krauss, S. L., Shortridge, K. F., et al. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.160270697 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Stevens, J., Blixt, O., Glaser, L., Taubenberger, J. K., Palese, P., Paulson, J. C., & Wilson, I. A. (2006) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2005.11.002 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
Functional balance between haemagglutinin and neuraminidase in influenza virus infections
Wagner, R., Matrosovich, M. N., & Klenk, H. (2002) · Reviews in Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/rmv.352 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
A Two-Amino Acid Change in the Hemagglutinin of the 1918 Influenza Virus Abolishes Transmission
Tumpey, T. M., Maines, T. R., Hoeven, N. V., Glaser, L. J., Solórzano, A., Pappas, C., Cox, N. J., Swayne, D. E., Palese, P., Katz, J. M., et al. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1136212 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Molecular Basis of Replication of Duck H5N1 Influenza Viruses in a Mammalian Mouse Model
Li, Z., Chen, H., Jiao, P., Deng, G., Tian, G., Li, Y., Hoffmann, E., Webster, R. G., Matsuoka, Y., & Yu, K. (2005) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.79.18.12058-12064.2005 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
van Riel, D. A. J., Munster, V. J., de Wit, E., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Fouchier, R. A. M., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., & Kuiken, T. (2007) · American Journal Of Pathology · doi:10.2353/ajpath.2007.070248 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
H9N2 Influenza A Viruses from Poultry in Asia Have Human Virus-like Receptor Specificity
Matrosovich, M. N., Krauss, S. L., & Webster, R. G. (2001) · Virology · doi:10.1006/viro.2000.0799 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Ha, Y., Stevens, D. J., Skehel, J. J., & Wiley, D. C. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.201401198 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Glycan topology determines human adaptation of avian H5N1 virus hemagglutinin
Chandrasekaran, A., Srinivasan, A., Raman, R., Viswanathan, K., Raguram, S., Tumpey, T. M., Sasisekharan, V., & Sasisekharan, R. (2008) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt1375 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Glaser, L. J., Stevens, J., Zamarin, D., Wilson, I. A., García‐Sastre, A., Tumpey, T. M., Basler, C. F., Taubenberger, J. K., & Palese, P. (2005) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.79.17.11533-11536.2005 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Adaptive strategies of the influenza virus polymerase for replication in humans
Mehle, A., & Doudna, J. A. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0911915106 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs
Kida, H., Ito, T., Yasuda, J., et al. (1994) · Journal of General Virology · doi:10.1099/0022-1317-75-9-2183 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Three Indonesian Clusters of H5N1 Virus Infection in 2005
Kandun, I. N., Wibisono, H., Sedyaningsih, E. R., Yusharmen, Hadisoedarsuno, W., Purba, W. H., Santoso, H., Septiawati, C., Tresnaningsih, E., Heriyanto, B., et al. (2006) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa060930 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Lack of transmission of H5N1 avian–human reassortant influenza viruses in a ferret model
Maines, T. R., Chen, L.-M., Matsuoka, Y., Chen, H., Rowe, T., Ortı́n, J., Falcón, A. M., Hiển, N. T., Mai, L. Q., Sedyaningsih, E. R., et al. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0605134103 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Childs, R. A., Palma, A. S., Wharton, S. A., Matrosovich, T. Y., Liu, Y., Chai, W., Campanero‐Rhodes, M. A., Zhang, Y.-B., Eickmann, M., Kiso, M., et al. (2009) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt0909-797 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Biological and Structural Characterization of a Host-Adapting Amino Acid in Influenza Virus
Yamada, S., Hatta, M., Staker, B. L., Watanabe, S., Imai, M., Shinya, K., Sakai‐Tagawa, Y., Ito, M., Ozawa, M., Watanabe, T., et al. (2010) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001034 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Self-citationWan, H., & Perez, D. R. (2007) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02827-06 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Replication and Transmission of H9N2 Influenza Viruses in Ferrets: Evaluation of Pandemic Potential
Wan, H., Sorrell, E. M., Song, H., et al. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002923 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Bussey, K. A., Bousse, T. L., Desmet, E. A., et al. (2010) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02642-09 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Wang, W., Lü, B., Zhou, H., et al. (2010) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00221-10 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Comparative distribution of human and avian type sialic acid influenza receptors in the pig
Nelli, R. K., Kuchipudi, S. V., White, G. A., Baquero-Pérez, B., Dunham, S. P., & Chang, K. (2010) · BMC Veterinary Research · doi:10.1186/1746-6148-6-4 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Sorrell, E. M., Wan, H., Araya, Y., Song, H., & Perez, D. R. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0900877106 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Watanabe, Y., Ibrahim, M. S., Ellakany, H. F., Kawashita, N., Mizuike, R., Hiramatsu, H., Sriwilaijaroen, N., Takagi, T., Suzuki, Y., & Ikuta, K. (2011) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002068 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Variation of Influenza A, B, and C Viruses
Palese, P., & Young, J. F. (1982) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7038875 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Evolution of the receptor binding phenotype of influenza A (H5) viruses
Gambaryan, A. S., Tuzikov, A. B., Pazynina, G. V., Bovin, N. V., Balish, A. L., & Klimov, A. I. (2005) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2005.08.035 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Yen, H., Liang, C.-H., Wu, C., Forrest, H. L., Ferguson, A., Choy, K.-T., Jones, J. C., Wong, D., Cheung, P. P., Hsu, C.-H., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1111000108 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
In vitro evolution of H5N1 avian influenza virus toward human-type receptor specificity
Chen, L.-M., Blixt, O., Stevens, J., Lipatov, A. S., Davis, C. T., Collins, B. E., Cox, N. J., Paulson, J. C., & Donis, R. O. (2011) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2011.10.006 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Recent Avian H5N1 Viruses Exhibit Increased Propensity for Acquiring Human Receptor Specificity
Stevens, J., Blixt, O., Chen, L.-M., Donis, R. O., Paulson, J. C., & Wilson, I. A. (2008) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2008.04.016 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Belser, J. A., Blixt, O., Chen, L.-M., Pappas, C., Maines, T. R., Hoeven, N. V., Donis, R. O., Busch, J., McBride, R., Paulson, J. C., et al. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0801259105 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Quail carry sialic acid receptors compatible with binding of avian and human influenza viruses
Wan, H., & Pérez, D. R. (2005) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2005.10.035 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
An Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus That Binds to a Human-Type Receptor
Auewarakul, P., Suptawiwat, O., Kongchanagul, A., et al. (2007) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00468-07 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Structures of receptor complexes formed by hemagglutinins from the Asian Influenza pandemic of 1957
Liu, J., Stevens, D. J., Haire, L. F., Walker, P. A., Coombs, P. J., Russell, R. J. M., Gamblin, S. J., & Skehel, J. J. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0906849106 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Poucke, S. V., Nicholls, J. M., Nauwynck, H., & Reeth, K. V. (2010) · Virology Journal · doi:10.1186/1743-422x-7-38 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Chutinimitkul, S., van Riel, D. A. J., Munster, V. J., van den Brand, J. M. A., Rimmelzwaan, G. F., Kuiken, T., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., Fouchier, R. A. M., & de Wit, E. (2010) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02737-09 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Kuchipudi, S. V., Nelli, R. K., & White, G. A. (2009) · Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine · doi:10.4172/1747-0862.1000026 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Kimble, J. B., Sorrell, E. M., Shao, H., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1108058108 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Maines, T. R., Chen, L., Hoeven, N. V., et al. (2011) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2011.02.015 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Family Clustering of Avian Influenza A (H5N1)
Olsen, S. J., Ungchusak, K., Sovann, L., Uyeki, T. M., Dowell, S. F., Cox, N. J., Aldis, W. L., & Chunsuttiwat, S. (2005) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1111.050646 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Receptor Specificity and Transmission of H2N2 Subtype Viruses Isolated from the Pandemic of 1957
Pappas, C., Viswanathan, K., Chandrasekaran, A., et al. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011158 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Characterization of influenza virus sialic acid receptors in minor poultry species
Kimble, J. B., Ramírez, G., & Pérez, D. R. (2010) · Virology Journal · doi:10.1186/1743-422x-7-365 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Xu, R., McBride, R., Paulson, J. C., Basler, C. F., & Wilson, I. A. (2009) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02162-09 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Yang, H., Chen, L.-M., Carney, P. J., Donis, R. O., & Stevens, J. (2010) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001081 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Glycan Analysis and Influenza A Virus Infection of Primary Swine Respiratory Epithelial Cells
Bateman, A., Karamanska, R., Busch, M. G., et al. (2010) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.115998 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Influenza virology: current topics
Jennings, L. (2007) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(07)70048-8 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
ECOLOGY OF INFLUENZA VIRUSES IN LOWER MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Laver, W. G., & Webster, R. G. (1979) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071537 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Xu, Q., Wang, W., Cheng, X., et al. (2010) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02489-09 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Yu, J. E., Yoon, H., Lee, H. J., et al. (2011) · Journal of Veterinary Science · doi:10.4142/jvs.2011.12.1.7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Adaptation of a Duck Influenza A Virus in Quail
Yamada, S., Shinya, K., Takada, A., et al. (2011) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.06100-11 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Varki, A. (2017) · Glycobiology · doi:10.1093/glycob/cww086 · Cited by 2,635 · see citing works
Progenitor identification and SARS-CoV-2 infection in human distal lung organoids
Salahudeen, A. A., Choi, S. S., Rustagi, A., Zhu, J., van Unen, V., de la O, S. M., Flynn, R. A., Margalef-Català, M., Santos, A. J. M., Ju, J., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-3014-1 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Kohil, A., Jemmieh, S., Smatti, M. K., & Yassine, H. M. (2021) · Archives of Virology · doi:10.1007/s00705-020-04891-1 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Siegers, J. Y., van de Bildt, M. W. G., Lin, Z., Leijten, L. M., Lavrijssen, R. A. M., Bestebroer, T., Spronken, M. I. J., De Zeeuw, C. I., Gao, Z., Schrauwen, E. J. A., et al. (2019) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02273-18 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
- Authors
- Imai, M., & Kawaoka, Y.
- Affiliations
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases (JP)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kawaoka, Yoshihiro
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Virology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-04
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 160-167
- ISSN
- 1879-6257 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5605752
- OpenAlex
- W1991581164
- Cited by
- 312
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 4.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Virology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI069274)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Influenza Virus Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Virology and Viral Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Outbreaks Research
- Keywords
- influenza A virus, hemagglutinin, receptor specificity, sialic acid receptors, interspecies transmission, avian influenza, H5N1, H7, H9N2, human-to-human transmission, receptor adaptation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Birds, Influenza in Birds, Humans, Influenza, Human, Influenza A virus, Protein Binding, Receptors, Virus, Species Specificity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review