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Transmission routes of respiratory viruses among humans
Open accessAbstract
Respiratory tract infections can be caused by a wide variety of viruses. Airborne transmission via droplets and aerosols enables some of these viruses to spread efficiently among humans, causing outbreaks that are difficult to control. Many outbreaks have been investigated retrospectively to study the possible routes of inter-human virus transmission. The results of these studies are often inconclusive and at the same time data from controlled experiments is sparse. Therefore, fundamental knowledge on transmission routes that could be used to improve intervention strategies is still missing. We here present an overview of the available data from experimental and observational studies on the transmission routes of respiratory viruses between humans, identify knowledge gaps, and discuss how the available knowledge is currently implemented in isolation guidelines in health care settings.
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“Physical interventions, such as the use of masks and physical distancing measures, might prevent the spread of respiratory viruses which are considered to be transmitted by multiple modes of transmission including by respiratory particles of varying sizes spreading from infected to susceptible people and through direct and indirect contact (Kutter 2018; Leung 2021).”
From Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses (2023) · cites this paper as Kutter 2018
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“In addition, transmission of respiratory viruses is likely highly complex, dependent on multiple host, virus and environmental factors, plus the myriad of interactions between these factors, which may influence the predominant modes of transmission in any given setting (Broderick 2008; Hendley 1988; Kutter 2018; Leung 2021).”
From Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses (2023) · cites this paper as Kutter 2018
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Infection Control Practices at the Dental Clinics in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Zhao, S., Wang, K., Chong, K. C., Musa, S. S., He, M., Han, L., He, D., & Wang, M. H. (2022) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2022.111105 · Cited by 10
Social Contacts and Transmission of COVID-19 in British Columbia, Canada
Ringa, N., Otterstatter, M. C., Iyaniwura, S. A., Irvine, M. A., Adu, P., Janjua, N. Z., David, S., & Spencer, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.867425 · Cited by 12
Waleed, M. Z., Rafiq, K., Abid, M. Z., Burhan, M., Althomali, R. H., Iqbal, S., & Hussain, E. (2024) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.112713 · Cited by 10
Insights of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease outbreak, management and treatment
Kumar, D., Batra, L., & Malik, M. T. (2020) · AIMS Microbiology · doi:10.3934/microbiol.2020013 · Cited by 10
Zhao, S., Lou, J., Cao, L., Zheng, H., Chong, K. C., Chen, Z., Zee, B. C.-Y., Chan, P. K. S., & Wang, M. H. (2021) · Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling · doi:10.1186/s12976-021-00140-3 · Cited by 11
Zhang, H., Ding, X., Zhang, W., Zhang, W., & Xuan, Y. (2023) · Building Simulation · doi:10.1007/s12273-023-1063-8 · Cited by 9
“Respiratory viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 have three main routes of transmission: (i) long-range airborne transmission, (ii) short-range droplet transmission, and (iii) infected surface contact transmission (Kutter et al. 2018).”
Oh, W., Ooka, R., Kikumoto, H., & Lee, S. (2023) · Aerosol Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/02786826.2023.2271954 · Cited by 9
“However, droplet nuclei smaller than 5 m m may remain in the air for a long time, causing airborne infections (Kutter et al. 2018).”
BackgroundRapid virus inactivation by nanoparticles-embedded photodynamic surfaces
Zhang, G., Zhou, J., Lv, Q., Yang, R., Zhang, Y., Chu, J., Zhang, H., Han, Y., Sun, K., Yuan, C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2024.10.114 · Cited by 9
Sun, J., Zheng, T., Jia, M., Wang, Y., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Yang, P., Xie, Y., Sun, H., Tong, Q., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-54374-z · Cited by 9
“The ef fi ciency of viral transmission between humans, whether through direct contact or via airborne routes, is a crucial factor determining the occurrence of epidemics or pandemics 54 .”
Performance of Composite Filters Assembled from Multiple Layers of Basic Filtration Media
Wang, P., Liu, Z., & Chen, D. (2020) · Aerosol and Air Quality Research · doi:10.4209/aaqr.2020.07.0368 · Cited by 9
“Respiratory viruses can be transmitted via the droplets and droplet-nuclei produced by infected individuals from coughing, sneezing, speaking, and even breathing (Yang et al. , 2007; Stelzer‐Braid et al. , 2009; Kutter et al. , 2018).”
A robotic arm for safe and accurate control of biomedical equipment during COVID-19
Iadanza, E., Pasqua, G., Piaggio, D., Caputo, C., Gherardelli, M., & Pecchia, L. (2023) · Health and Technology · doi:10.1007/s12553-022-00715-1 · Cited by 9
Wang, Z., Yan, X., Zhao, M., Zhang, S., & Jia, Z. (2023) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-023-01850-3 · Cited by 9
“Airborne transmission, via droplets and aerosols, enables some of these viruses to spread efficiently among humans (Kutter et al. 2018).”
Peng, Y., & Yao, M. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.2c08503 · Cited by 9
Large-Scale Dust–Bioaerosol Field Observations in East Asia
Huang, Z., Dong, Q., Xue, F., Qi, J., Yu, X., Maki, T., Du, P., Gu, Q., Tang, S., Shi, J., et al. (2024) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-d-23-0108.1 · Cited by 9
What every orthopaedic surgeon should know about COVID-19: A review of the current literature
Yung, C. S.-Y., Fok, K. C. H., Leung, G. C. N., & Wong, Y. W. (2020) · Journal of orthopaedic surgery · doi:10.1177/2309499020923499 · Cited by 9
BEV-Net: Assessing Social Distancing Compliance by Joint People Localization and Geometric Reasoning
Dai, Z., Jiang, Y., Li, Y., Liu, B., Chan, A. B., & Vasconcelos, N. M. (2021) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv48922.2021.00535 · Cited by 9
“CC datasets are more relevant, as they contain abundant examples of people gathering in clusters—often within 1 to 2 meters, the range of droplet transmission [61, 15, 31]—and the scene/camera configurations are most suitable for monitoring social distances in public spaces.”
BackgroundDoes spitting in public play a role in transmitting SARS-CoV-2?
Gautret, P., Colson, P., Lagier, J., Parola, P., & Raoult, D. (2020) · Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101759 · Cited by 9
“Based on experimental data, SARSCoV and MERS-CoV have been shown to be transmitted by contact, droplets and aerosol but little evidence is available on the transmission routes of common coronaviruses (229E, OC43, HKU1 and NL63) [1].”
Backgroundde Lusignan, S., Sherlock, J., Akinyemi, O., Pebody, R. G., Elliot, A. J., Byford, R. C., Yonova, I., Zambon, M. C. F. A., & Joy, M. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09790-3 · Cited by 9
“Respiratory infections are known to be contagious and spread by droplets and contaminated fomites and therefore close proximity, such as in households, is important though evidence about the precise mechanism of transmission remain sparse [11].”
BackgroundHydroxypropyl-Beta Cyclodextrin Barrier Prevents Respiratory Viral Infections: A Preclinical Study
Lu, A., Ebright, B., Naik, A. A., Tan, H. L., Cohen, N. A., Bouteiller, J. C., Lazzi, G., Louie, S. G., Humayun, M. S., & Asante, I. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25042061 · Cited by 8
“Formulations of CRYSMEB greater than 5% ( w / v ) caused cytotoxicity and thus, CRYSMEB formulations were excluded from subsequent SARS-CoV-2 studies.”
MethodQu, G., Liu, Z., Ren, L., Liu, G., Zhang, Y., Zhan, M., Yan, M., Liu, W. Y., & Li, W. (2024) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110571 · Cited by 8
Xi, J., Talaat, M., Si, X. A., Dong, H., Donepudi, R., Kabilan, S., & CORLEY, R. A. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9121107 · Cited by 8
“The ability to filter out inhaled matters is directly related to the defense against infectious diseases [64,65].”
BackgroundHousehold transmission of seasonal coronavirus infections: Results from the Flu Watch cohort study
Beale, S., Lewer, D., Aldridge, R. W., Johnson, A. M., Zambon, M. C. F. A., Hayward, A. C., & Fragaszy, E. (2020) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16055.1 · Cited by 8
SARS-CoV-2: Should We Be Concerned about the Nervous System?
Silva, M. T. T., Lima, M. A., & Araújo, A. (2020) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.20-0447 · Cited by 8
“Transmission of these agents occurs mainly by contact with fomites or suspension droplets.(17) All these viruses canproducebronchiolitis andpneumonia, being”
BackgroundNovel Corona Virus Pandemic and Neonatal Care: It’s Too Early to Speculate on Impact!
Kalyanasundaram, S., Krishnamurthy, K., Sridhar, A., Narayanan, V. K., Santosh, A. B. R., & Rahman, S. (2020) · SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1007/s42399-020-00440-8 · Cited by 8
“The virus spreads by airborne (aerosol and droplet generation by atomization while coughing, sneezing, or even talking) and droplet contact spread and has a high attack rate [2, 9].”
BackgroundMethodIdentification of a βCD-Based Hyper-Branched Negatively Charged Polymer as HSV-2 and RSV Inhibitor
Francese, R., Cecone, C., Costantino, M., Hoti, G., Bracco, P., Lembo, D., & Trotta, F. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23158701 · Cited by 8
“Indeed, RSV is spread through contact with droplets from infected people and through self-contamination after touching dried respiratory secretions on hard surfaces where the virus can remain for several hours [60,61].”
BackgroundBhattacharya, S., Kumar, A., Samiksha, S., & Sharma, P. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100221 · Cited by 8
Reissner, J., Siller, P., Bartel, A., Roesler, U. H., & Friese, A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-49361-1 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Kutter, J. S., Spronken, M. I., Fraaij, P. L., Fouchier, R. A., & Herfst, S.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus MC (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Herfst, Sander
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Virology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-02
- Volume
- 28
- Pages
- 142-151
- ISSN
- 1879-6257 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7102683
- OpenAlex
- W2786432367
- Cited by
- 611
- References
- 136
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 98 · 2021: 153 · 2020: 137 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 7
- FWCI
- 13.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Virology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Seventh Framework Programme (602525)
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (91715372)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Infection Control and Ventilation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Infection Control in Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Respiratory viral infections research
- Keywords
- respiratory viruses, human-to-human transmission, transmission routes, airborne transmission, droplet transmission, respiratory infections, outbreak investigation, infection control, knowledge gaps
- MeSH terms
- Aerosols, Disease Outbreaks, Humans, Influenza, Human, Measles virus, Influenza A virus, Respiratory Tract Infections, Retrospective Studies, Virus Diseases, Observational Studies as Topic
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