The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 86 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 127 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review
Open accessAbstract
Some autistic people employ strategies and behaviours to cope with the everyday social world, thereby 'camouflaging' their autistic differences and difficulties. This review aimed to systematically appraise and synthesise the current evidence base pertaining to autistic camouflaging. Following a systematic search of eight databases, 29 studies quantifying camouflaging in children and adults with autism diagnoses or high levels of autistic traits were reviewed. The multiple methods used to measure camouflaging broadly fell under two different approaches: internal-external discrepancy or self-report. These approaches appear to relate to two distinct but potentially connected elements of camouflaging: observable behavioural presentations and self-perceived camouflaging efforts. While significant variation was noted across individual study findings, much of the existing literature supported three preliminary findings about the nature of autistic camouflaging: (1) adults with more self-reported autistic traits report greater engagement in camouflaging; (2) sex and gender differences exist in camouflaging; and (3) higher self-reported camouflaging is associated with worse mental health outcomes. However, the research base was limited regarding participant characterisation and representativeness, which suggests that conclusions cannot be applied to the autistic community as a whole. We propose priorities for future research in refining the current understanding of camouflaging and improving measurement methods.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This systematic review synthesizes 29 quantitative studies of camouflaging in autistic people and those with high autistic traits. It finds consistent links between self-reported camouflaging and higher autistic traits/diagnosis, female gender, and poorer mental health, but measurement heterogeneity and unrepresentative samples limit firm conclusions.
Key findings
- Adults with more self-reported autistic traits, and often those with an autism diagnosis, report greater camouflaging; one study suggested the diagnostic association was driven by autistic traits rather than the label itself.
- Most included studies found autistic females/girls/women camouflaged more than autistic males/boys/men, with no study showing the reverse; evidence on non-binary people was limited, though one study found non-binary autistic people camouflaged at levels similar to autistic women.
- Eight of ten adult studies supported an association between greater self-reported camouflaging and poorer mental health, including anxiety, depression, psychological distress, suicidality, and lower wellbeing; findings using internal-external discrepancy measures were less consistent.
- Two broad measurement approaches emerged: self-report methods, which may capture “camouflaging intent,” and internal-external discrepancy methods, which may capture “camouflaging efficacy”; the CAT-Q was used in 13 of 19 self-report studies.
Methods
- PROSPERO-registered systematic review following PRISMA; databases searched from inception to October 2020, with an updated search in May 2021, plus grey literature and reference checking.
- From 2160 unique citations and 104 full-text reviews, 29 studies met inclusion criteria: 18 adult studies and 11 child/adolescent studies, totaling 2254 adults and 1077 children/adolescents with autism diagnoses or high autistic traits.
- Data were extracted and cross-checked by reviewers, study quality was assessed with the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and findings were narratively grouped by five research questions; meta-analysis was not possible due to measurement differences.
Limitations
- The authors state that the search may not have been exhaustive, that their own involvement in the camouflaging field may have introduced bias, and that the review lacked participatory design and autistic input.
- The review reports that most studies failed to obtain representative samples (n=23) and many did not describe participant flow (n=17); participant characterization was generally poor, with samples mostly white, university-educated adult females/women diagnosed in adulthood and mostly white male children/adolescents.
- The text makes evident further constraints: cross-sectional designs prevent causal inference, non-binary samples were underpowered, online questionnaire recruitment likely excluded some autistic people, and the CAT-Q had not been validated for adolescents in several included studies.
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Claims the paper makes
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current approaches to measuring camouflaging appear to measure 'camouflaging intent' and 'camouflaging efficacy'.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Study designs are limited by poor participant characterisation and representativeness.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher self-reported camouflaging is associated with worse mental health outcomes.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date, no review has systematically identified and described methods of measuring camouflaging, nor has it systematically examined the measurement properties of these methods.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Previous Reviews
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sex and gender differences exist in camouflaging.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date, no review has systematically identified and described methods of measuring camouflaging, nor has it systematically examined the measurement properties of these methods.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Previous Reviews
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adults with more self-reported autistic traits report greater engagement in camouflaging.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, no review has systematically examined and described the characteristics of participants included in camouflaging studies.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Previous Reviews
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, 2254 autistic adults (clinically diagnosed or self-identifying) and adults with high levels of autistic traits were included across all studies (sample sizes ranged from N=17 to N=354).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2,254Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies failed to gain a representative sample of autistic participants (n = 23) and/or did not provide a description of participant flow (e.g., an indication of the number of people who started, but failed to finish, an online questionnaire; n = 17).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Quality Assessment
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 23Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 56
- It may state two separate claims as one. 38
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in Figure 1, after removal of duplicates, 2160 unique citations were screened for eligibility, of which 104 full-text articles were reviewed and 29 studies were identified as eligible for inclusion in the systematic review.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Overview of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adults ranged in age from 16 to 82 with a mean age of 36.47 years.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2,254Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three studies involving chiefly qualitative design were included because each included a quantitative measure of camouflaging (Cook et al., 2021;Hull et al., 2017;Livingston, Shah, & Happé et al., 2019).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Overview of Included Studies
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The majority of studies (n = 23) involved solely quantitative methodologies and a further three used mixed methods designs (Cage et al., 2018;Jedrzejewska & Dewey, 2021;Livingston et al., 2020).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Overview of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 23Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eighteen of the included studies examined camouflaging in adults, and 11 examined camouflaging in children and adolescents.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Overview of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 11Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The majority of participants reported female sex or identified as womenfoot_0 (60.1%) and were formally diagnosed with autism (95.9%).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were either open to individuals worldwide to participate (but conducted in English; n=9) or were restricted to individuals located in the UK (n=10), USA (n=8), Australia (n=1), or Poland (n=1).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Overview of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 9Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were typically diagnosed in adulthood (M=32.98 years) across the seven studies reporting mean age at diagnosis.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Child/adolescent participants ranged in age from 5 to 18 years with a mean age of 11.90 years.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only four studies measured IQ and participants in these studies were of average to above average intelligence (Full Scale IQ, M=112.35).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nine adult studies and four child/adolescent studies used the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q; Hull et al., 2019).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hull et al., 2019 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 9Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most participants were of male sex or identified as boys 3 (62.9%)and were formally diagnosed with autism (94.7%).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Almost half of the participants in the one study reporting comorbidities had co-occurring diagnoses (40.7%).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Two studies used modified versions of the Girls Questionnaire for Autism Spectrum Conditions (GQ-ASC; Attwood et al., 2011).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Attwood et al., 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most participants were of male sex or identified as boys 3 (62.9%)and were formally diagnosed with autism (94.7%).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One additional study used a parent-report measure of masking.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Internal consistency for the Camouflaging subscale was 𝜔= 0.67.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 672Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Whilst yet to be validated for use with autistic adolescents, four studies using the CAT-Q involved adolescent samples (Bernadin et al. 2021;Hull, Petrides, & Mandy, 2021;Jedrzejewska & Dewey, 2021;Jorgenson et al., 2020).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Child and adolescent samples ranged from N=33 to N=236 with a total of 1077 children and adolescents with an autism diagnosis or high levels of autistic traits included across all studies.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,077Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Internal consistency for the Social Masking scale was α =.61.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean Full Scale IQ was in the average range (99.93).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen in Table 3, three adult studies and six child/adolescent studies used internal-external discrepancy approaches.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Internal-External Discrepancy Approaches
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 3Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most participants in the two studies reporting ethnic group/race were white (75.8%).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“General anxiety (54.8%) and depression (53.1%) were common amongst participants in the five studies reporting cooccurring mental health conditions.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Participant Characteristics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, results suggested that higher levels of self-reported camouflaging are associated with having an autism diagnosis or higher autistic traits in adult samples.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Is Camouflaging Associated with having High Autistic Traits or an Autism Diagnosis?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reported internal consistency for the questions was α=.75.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Internal consistency for the set of camouflaging contexts was α=0.95.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Self-Report
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“gender was a suggestive predictor of camouflaging such that identifying as female or non-binary predicted higher Total CAT-Q scores.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Are there sex or gender differences in camouflaging behaviours?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Perry et al., 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“compared to autistic males, autistic females reported camouflaging across more situations, more frequently and for more of the time (Cassidy et al., 2018).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Are there sex or gender differences in camouflaging behaviours?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cassidy et al., 2018 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Livingston, Colvert, et al. (2019) found high compensators demonstrated significantly higher Full Scale IQ and Verbal IQ (but not Non-Verbal IQ) scores than low compensators.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Children and Adolescents.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Livingston, Colvert, et al., 2019
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lai et al. (2017) suggested that higher camouflaging scores may be associated with better executive functioning abilities for autistic women but not autistic men.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Are particular cognitive abilities or processes associated with camouflaging?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lai et al., 2017 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Spontaneously reported camouflaging (in text responses to questions about autism acceptance and mental health) was associated with higher depression, but not anxiety or stress scores (Cage et al., 2018).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > What is the relationship between camouflaging and mental health and wellbeing outcomes?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cage et al., 2018 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“older age suggestively predicted lower total CAT-Q scores while older age at diagnosis suggestively predicted higher total CAT-Q scores (Perry et al., 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Is camouflaging related to current age or age at diagnosis? Adults.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Perry et al., 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lai et al. (2017) found that higher camouflaging scores were associated with greater depressive symptoms in men but not women”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > What is the relationship between camouflaging and mental health and wellbeing outcomes?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lai et al., 2017 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“increased social anxiety, general anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Hull et al., 2019;Hull, Levy, et al., 2021)”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > What is the relationship between camouflaging and mental health and wellbeing outcomes?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hull et al., 2019 source
- Not checked yetcites Hull, Levy, et al., 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Livingston, Colvert, et al. (2019) reported that high compensators demonstrated high self-report (but not parent-report) anxiety compared to low compensators.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Children and Adolescents.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Livingston, Colvert, et al., 2019
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“decreased well-being (Hull et al., 2019; although see Perry et al., 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > What is the relationship between camouflaging and mental health and wellbeing outcomes?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hull et al., 2019 source
- Not checked yetcites Perry et al., 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining included studies found null results and no study found the converse effect of higher camouflaging in males or boys/men.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“preliminary findings from two included studies suggest that experiences of stigma and not feeling accepted play a role (Cage et al., 2018;Perry et al., 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cage et al., 2018 source
- Not checked yetcites Perry et al., 2021
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the consistent documentation of camouflaging in autistic males and boys/men also shows that camouflaging is not specific to females and girls/women (Lai et al., 2017;Hull, Lai, et al., 2020).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lai et al., 2017 source
- Not checked yetcites Hull, Lai, et al., 2020
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a more nuanced understanding of sex and gender differences in camouflaging is currently lacking, owing in part to included studies largely failing to provide a comprehensive characterisation of participants' gender identity via the description of the multiple components of sex and gender.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the remaining two studies it was unclear if the measurement of sex/gender reported referred to sex or gender.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is the first review to systematically appraise and synthesise the current evidence base pertaining to autistic camouflaging in children and adults of all sexes and genders.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Conclusions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In one study it was unclear if measurement of sex/gender reported referred to sex or gender.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In describing sex and gender or participants, child studies reported sex only (n = 6); what was termed sex/gender by authors (n = 2); and gender only (n = 2).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 6Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In describing sex and gender of participants, adult studies reported: gender only (n = 8); sex and gender (n = 3); sex only (n = 2).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 8Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dean et al. (2017) This study quantitatively compared playground activities (type of activity and time spent in activity) between autistic and non-autistic boys and girls.Qualitive data was provided describing camouflaging behaviours.Thus, this study did not present quantitative data measuring camouflaging.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dean et al. (2017) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Bargiela et al. (2016) Presented only qualitative data regarding camouflaging in late diagnosed women.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bargiela et al. (2016) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“99.93”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Head et al. (2014)The authors compared autistic and non-autistic children's scores on a self-report measure of friendship quality, understanding, and empathy.Thus, this study did not report quantitative data measuring camouflaging.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Head et al. (2014) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“40.7 Co-morbid diagnosis”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“53.1 Depression”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Lehnhardt et al. (2016) The authors compared differences in cognitive, executive functioning, and mentalising abilities between late diagnosed autistic men and women.The authors discussed these abilities as potentially enabling camouflaging.Thus, this study presented data on abilities that may be associated with camouflaging rather than camouflaging per se.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lehnhardt et al. (2016) source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“11.90”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“36.47 32.98”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Tierney et al., (2016) Presented only qualitative data regarding camouflaging in autistic girls.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tierney et al. (2016) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Cook et al. (2018) Presented only qualitative data regarding masking in autistic girls and their mothers.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cook et al. (2018)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“112.35”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent discussions and commentaries highlight potential problems within the field including variations in operationalisations and measurement approaches, under-established validity and reliability across measures, and a lack of representativeness within study samples (Fombonne, 2020;Lai et al., 2020;Williams, 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fombonne, 2020 source
- Not checked yetcites Lai et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Williams, 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This review protocol was registered online with PROSPERO, the international prospective register of systematic reviews (registration number: CRD42019141410).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Study quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT; Hong et al., 2018).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Quality Assessment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hong et al., 2018 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reviewers did not assess studies for which they were also authors, with the exception of one study (Cook, Crane, Bourne et al., 2021) on which all four reviewers were authors.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Quality Assessment
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The most current version of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for conducting systematic reviews was followed throughout the review process (Page et al., 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Page et al., 2021 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review proceeded as planned except that one research question (”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each author independently extracted data for ≈25% of included studies.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Data Extraction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each author then cross-checked data for a separate ≈25% of included studies.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Data Extraction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each study was independently rated by two reviewers (i.e., either JC and LC or WM and LH).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Quality Assessment
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After exclusion of research according to these broad criteria, the full texts of remaining publications were evaluated for inclusion independently by JC and LH.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“camouflaging likely involves both the conscious and unconscious employment of behavioural and cognitive strategies.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“given that the ADOS was developed using predominately white, male samples, scores on this measure may reflect, at least in part, the degree to which an individual's behavioural presentation ordinarily deviates from the stereotypically male autistic presentation, rather than the degree to which an individual's behavioural presentation is changed via camouflaging (Pearson & Rose, 2021).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pearson & Rose, 2021 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“self-report methodologies could be conceptualised as measuring camouflaging attempts, efforts, or intentions”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the CAT-Q showed potential as measure of self-perceived camouflaging, demonstrating sound internal consistency and test-retest reliability and performing generally as expected when tested in relation to gender, autistic traits, and mental health and wellbeing”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the relationship between greater self-report levels of autistic traits and improved performance on measures of social communication may be driven by social insight or reasoning as opposed to camouflaging (Livingston et al., 2020).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Livingston et al., 2020 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“internal-external discrepancy methods may capture the extent to which these behaviours and strategies (as well as behaviours and strategies operating outside of conscious awareness) translate into observable social behaviour, and we label this 'camouflaging efficacy'.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is likely that internal-external discrepancy and self-report approaches measure distinct but potentially converging elements of camouflaging (Lai et al., 2020).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lai et al., 2020
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Self-report methodologies may measure the extent to which individuals consciously employ camouflaging behaviours and strategies, and we label this 'camouflaging intent'.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging and Autism: Current Measurement Approaches
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these findings provide preliminary evidence that compared to autistic males and boys/men, autistic females and girls/women appear to consciously engage in more camouflaging, with more noticeable effects.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the current evidence base appears to support suggestions that camouflaging is more associated with the experiences of autistic females and girls/ women, and may partially explain increased rates of missed or late diagnosis found amongst them”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“given the effect sizes were often small-to-moderate for sex and gender differences, the real-life camouflaging experiences of these groups may be broadly similar.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given the high rates of co-occurring mental health difficulties found amongst autistic adults (Lever & Geurst, 2016).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Research into Camouflaging in Autism: Current Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lever & Geurst, 2016 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Some members of real-world autistic communities are self-identified or self-diagnosed(Sarrett, 2016).”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Publication
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sarrett, 2016 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the evidence base was limited regarding participant characterisation and representativeness, suggesting that conclusions cannot be applied to the autistic community as a whole.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our search may not have been exhaustive.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Limitation of the current systematic review
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the review did not involve participatory design and thus is limited by a lack of autistic input.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Limitation of the current systematic review
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whilst our familiarity with the topic likely improved our ability to draw conclusions about and identify limitations within the evidence base, it may have increased the risk of bias.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Limitation of the current systematic review
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we acknowledge that we are embedded within the camouflaging field and that this may have had an impact on the review.”
§ Running Head: CAMOUFLAGING IN AUTISM 1 Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review > Limitation of the current systematic review
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“An important nuance to make here, is that although some autistic people show less involvement in social interaction, this might not necessarily be the result of lower social motivation, but rather it may be a consequence of exhaustion from trying to emulate a typical non-autistic style of interaction, known sometimes as camouflaging (e.g., Cook et al., 2021; Livingston et al., 2019).”
From Innovations of the ICD-11 in the Field of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Psychological Approach (2022) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Additionally, many Autistic adults report negative subjective outcomes as a result of having to meet inappropriate and unrealistic benchmarks, such as feeling they have to “pass” as neurotypical and mask or “camouflage” their Autistic behaviors (Bargiela et al., 2016; Cage & Troxell-Whitman, 2019; Cook et al., 2021; Hull et al., 2017; Livingston et al., 2019).”
From Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework (2022) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“There is also a sex difference in performance, as females with ASD perform better in interpersonal predictive tasks, suggesting better social and cognitive profile in females with ASD without intellectual disability that potentially may play a role in social camouflaging (Cook et al., 2021; Dean et al., 2017).”
From Predictive coding in neuropsychiatric disorders: a systematic transdiagnostic review. (2025) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Camouflaging is commonly described by autistic people as exhausting and is associated with elevated risk for anxiety, depression and suicidality”
From Innovations of the ICD-11 in the Field of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Psychological Approach (2022) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2021
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Such camouflaging requires sustained effort, is more typical of females (although it is common in all genders), and can have deleterious impact on mental health and well-being (Cook et al., 2021).”
From Innovations of the ICD-11 in the Field of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Psychological Approach (2022) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Discussions about the validity and conceptual clarity of the so-called female (autism) phenotype106,309,310, camouflaging109,311–315 and female protective effect226,316 are ongoing.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [312]
Citations
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Rayyan-a web and mobile app for systematic reviews.
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The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 for information professionals and researchers
Hong, Q. N., Fàbregues, S., Bartlett, G., Boardman, F., Cargo, M., Dagenais, P., Gagnon, M.-P., Griffiths, F., Nicolau, B., O’Cathain, A., et al. (2018) · Education for Information · doi:10.3233/efi-180221 · Cited by 4,737
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, the
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Metadata
- Authors
- Cook, J., Hull, L., Crane, L., & Mandy, W.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cook, Julia
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-11
- Volume
- 89
- Pages
- 102080
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3198172085
- Cited by
- 554
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 157 · 2025: 134 · 2024: 124 · 2023: 82 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 5
- FWCI
- 9.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- University College London
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, autistic traits, coping strategies, sex and gender differences, mental health outcomes, children and adults with autism
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Autistic Disorder, Child, Humans, Sex Factors, Self Report
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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