Temporal trends of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the influent of two of the largest wastewater treatment plants in Australia
Open accessAbstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are found ubiquitously in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) due to their multiple sources in industry and consumer products. In Australia, limited spatial data are available on PFAS levels in WWTPs influent, while no temporal data have been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and temporal trend of PFAS in the influent of two large WWTPs in Australia (WWTP A and B) over a four-year period. Daily influent samples were collected over one week at different seasons from 2014 to 2017. Eleven perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA) (i.e. seven perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and four perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSA)) were detected with mean Σ11PFAA concentrations of 57 ± 3.3–94 ± 17 ng/L at WWTP A, and 31 ± 6.1–142 ± 73 ng/L at WWTP B. The highest mean concentrations were observed for perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA) (20 ± 2 ng/L) in WWTP A, and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (17 ± 13 ng/L) in WWTP B. The precursor 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate was detected over five sampling periods from Aug 2016 to Oct 2017, with mean concentrations of 37 ± 18–138 ± 51 ng/L for WWTP A and 8.8 ± 4.5–29 ± 5.1 ng/L for WWTP B. Higher concentration of 6:2 FTS (1.8–11 folds) than those of PFOA and PFOS in WWTP A indicate a likely substitution of C8 PFAA by fluorotelomer-based PFAS in this catchment. Temporal trends (annual and seasonal) in per-capita mass load were observed for some PFAA, increasing for PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFNA, and PFHxS, while decreasing for PFBS and PFOS in either WWTPs. Notably, elevated levels of PFOS in October 2017 were observed at both WWTPs with the highest per capita mass load of up to 67 μg/day/inhabitant. For some PFAS release trends, longer sampling periods would be required to achieve acceptable statistical power.
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The persistence of legacy contamination remains an issue due to the prolonged use of PFOS-containing products, the degradation and transformation of precursor compounds, and the long environmental residence time of long-chain PFAS.
“However, the persistence of legacy contamination remains an issue due to the prolonged use of PFOS-containing products, the degradation and transformation of precursor compounds [68,89], and the long environmental residence time of longchain PFAS [45].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [89]
The Introduction states that PFAS precursors can transform into stable perfluoroalkyl acids, and §3.2.3 suggests that historical PFAS use influences current releases in the studied catchments. The paper does not specifically establish prolonged use of PFOS-containing products as a cause. The separate claim about long-chain PFAS residence time is attached to citation [45], not the citation assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis pattern may be attributed to precursor transformation processes occurring within WWTPs, where compounds such as FTS and FOSA degrade into PFOS, PFOA, and short-chain PFCAs.
“This pattern may be attributed to precursor transformation processes occurring within WWTPs, where compounds such as FTS and FOSA degrade into PFOS, PFOA, and short-chain PFCAs [28,56,68,89,110].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [89]
The Introduction says PFAS precursors may form PFAAs during WWTP treatment. Section 3.3 says 6:2 FTS can remain unchanged or transform into short-chain PFCAs during activated-sludge treatment. The copy does not say that FOSA transforms into PFOS or PFOA, or that FTS produces those two compounds; it also does not establish precursor transformation as the cause of the citing paper’s pattern. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples.
“Mean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples [37, 41, 43].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
Observed temporal variation in influent is more likely from pulse release as opposed to seasonal factors.
“In Australian WWTPs, temporal variation of PFAS in influent [43] and effluent [37] has been shown to be low; with observed temporal variation in influent being more likely from pulse release as opposed to seasonal factors [43].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In Australian WWTPs, temporal variation of PFAS in influent and effluent has been shown to be low.
“In Australian WWTPs, temporal variation of PFAS in influent [43] and effluent [37] has been shown to be low; with observed temporal variation in influent being more likely from pulse release as opposed to seasonal factors [43].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
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References 29 · Cited by 67
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- O.S. Arvaniti, A.S. Stasinakis, Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment, Sci. Total Environ. 524 (2015) 81e92.
- Authors
- Nguyen, H. T., Kaserzon, S. L., Thai, P. K., Vijayasarathy, S., Bräunig, J., Crosbie, N. D., Bignert, A., & Mueller, J. F.
- Affiliations
- Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (VN)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Melbourne Water (AU)
- Swedish Museum of Natural History (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Nguyen, Hue T.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Emerging Contaminants
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 211-218
- ISSN
- 2405-6642 (ISSN-L)
- 2405-6650
- OpenAlex
- W2952086891
- Cited by
- 67
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 3.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Emerging contaminants (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, wastewater treatment plant influent, temporal trends, seasonal variation, PFOS, fluorotelomer sulfonates, perfluorinated carboxylic acids, perfluorinated sulfonic acids, PFBS
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