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Cited by 327Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances researchPharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Chemistry and Analysis

An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs)

Open access
Coggan, Timothy L., Moodie, Damien, Kolobaric, Adam, Szabo, Drew, Shimeta, Jeff, Crosbie, Nicholas D., Lee, Elliot, Fernandes, Milena +1 more·2019·Heliyon
DOI 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02316PMC PMC6716228
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Abstract

Quantifying the emissions of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is of high importance due to potential impacts on receiving aquatic ecosystems. The new Australian PFAS National Environmental Management Plan recommends 0.23 ng L −1 of PFOS as the guideline value for 99% species protection for aquatic systems. In this study, 21 PFAS from four classes were measured in WWTP solid and aqueous samples from 19 Australian WWTPs. The mean ∑ 21 PFAS was 110 ng L −1 (median: 80 ng L −1 ; range: 9.3–520 ng L −1 ) in aqueous samples and 34 ng g −1 dw (median: 12 ng g −1 dw; range: 2.0–130 ng g −1 dw) in WWTP solids. Similar to WWTPs worldwide, perfluorocarboxylic acids were generally higher in effluent, compared to influent. Partitioning to solids within WWTPs increased with increasing fluoroalkyl chain length from 0.05 to 1.22 log units. Many PFAS were highly correlated, and PCA analysis showed strong associations between two groups: odd chained PFCAs, PFHxA and PFSAs; and 6:2 FTS with daily inflow volume and the proportion of trade waste accepted by WWTPs (as % of typical dry inflow). The compounds PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, and PFDA increased significantly between influent and final effluent. The compounds 6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS were quantified and F–53B detected and reported in Australian WWTP matrices. The compound 6:2 FTS was an important contributor to PFAS emissions in the studied Australian WWTPs, supporting the need for future research on its sources (including precursor degradation), environmental fate and impact in Australian aquatic environments receiving WWTP effluent.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Twenty-one PFAS from four classes were measured in aqueous and solid samples from 19 Australian wastewater treatment plants, with PFAS detected in every sample. The study reports widespread PFAS occurrence, significant increases of several PFCAs from influent to final effluent, and 6:2 FTS as an important contributor to estimated emissions.

Key findings

  • Mean ∑21PFAS was 110 ng L−1 (median 80 ng L−1; range 9.3–520 ng L−1) in aqueous samples and 34 ng g−1 dw (median 12 ng g−1 dw; range 2.0–130 ng g−1 dw) in solids; PFAS were detected in all samples from all matrices.
  • ∑21PFAS increased across treatment stages: influent 76, primary effluent 89, secondary effluent 140, final effluent 140, and recycled water 120 ng L−1; PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, and PFDA increased significantly between influent and final effluent.
  • Partitioning to solids increased with fluoroalkyl chain length from 0.05 to 1.22 log units, and was higher for PFSAs than PFCAs of similar chain length, except 6:2 FTS, which had the lowest mean partitioning coefficient and primarily partitioned to the aqueous phase.
  • 6:2 FTS was detected in 99% of aqueous samples (mean 7.3 ng L−1) and 26% of solid samples (mean 0.26 ng g−1 dw); estimated annual discharge for PFBA, PFPeA, and 6:2 FTS was 25, 27, and 19 kg, respectively, similar to PFOS (26 kg), and total ∑21PFAS discharge was estimated at 339 kg using the same annual discharge volume of 3013 GL.

Methods

  • Three replicate aqueous and solid samples were collected from 19 Australian WWTPs throughout 2017, covering influent, primary effluent, secondary effluent, final effluent, recycled water, primary sludge, secondary sludge, and lagoon sludge; aqueous n = 201 and solid n = 51.
  • Twenty-one PFAS from PFCAs, PFSAs, FTSs, and Cl-PFESAs were quantified by LC-MS/MS with isotope dilution after solid-phase extraction for aqueous samples and solvent extraction with dispersive SPE cleanup for solids.
  • Analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, linear mixed-effects models comparing influent and final effluent, PCA including daily inflow and percentage trade waste, and log Kd calculations for selected compounds where both aqueous and solid concentrations were above LOQ.

Limitations

  • The paper states that laboratory control samples using ultrapure water and acid-washed sand may not adequately represent WWTP matrices and associated interferences, creating some uncertainty in analytical results.
  • The paper states that annual discharge estimates from a single sampling campaign have high uncertainty due to daily and seasonal variation, and that log Kd calculations are only approximations because they assume equilibrium and do not consider differences in effluent and sludge retention times.
  • Evident from the design: each WWTP was sampled once during 2017, so within-plant temporal variability and seasonal trends are not fully resolved; several compounds were detected only below LOQ or at low frequency, limiting statistical analysis.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02316

Cites

59 of 59 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 53 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Mean concentrations in aqueous samples followed the trend PFHxA > PFOA > PFOS > PFHxS > PFBA > PFPeA > 6:2 FTS > PFHpA > PFBS > PFDA > PFPeS > PFNA > PFHpS > 8:2 FTS > PFTeA > PFDS.

    “Mean concentrations in aqueous samples followed the trend: PFHxA > PFOA > PFOS > PFHxS > PFBA > PFPeA>6:2 FTS > PFHpA > PFBS > PFDA > PFPeS > PFNA > PFHpS>8:2 FTS > PFTeA > PFDS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Partitioning of PFAS to solids within WWTPs increased with increasing fluoroalkyl chain length, from 0.05 to 1.22 log units.

    “Partitioning to solids within WWTPs increased with increasing fluoroalkyl chain length from 0.05 to 1.22 log units.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: For the log Kd calculation, PFAS concentrations in solids and liquids at the sampled location were in equilibrium.
  • Findingcitation

    Mean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples.

    “Mean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples [37, 41, 43].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [37] Gallen, 2018, A mass estimate of perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) release from Australian wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] Thompson, 2011, Removal of PFOS, PFOA and other perfluoroalkyl acids at water reclamation plants in South East Queensland Australia, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] Nguyen, 2019, Temporal trends of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the influent of two of the largest wastewater treatment plants in Australia, Emerg. Contam. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    The highest concentration measured in aqueous matrices for any compound was 370 ng L−1 for PFBA in final effluent at WWTP-12.

    “The highest concentration measured in aqueous matrices for any compound was 370 ng L−1 for PFBA in final effluent at WWTP-12.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Eleven of the 21 compounds were detected in >90% of samples: PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, and 6:2 FTS.

    “Eleven of the 21 compounds were detected in >90% of samples (PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, 6:2 FTS), and these were used in the subsequent statistical analysis of influent and final effluent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 43
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Perfluorocarboxylic acids were generally higher in effluent than influent in the studied WWTPs, similar to WWTPs worldwide.

    “Similar to WWTPs worldwide, perfluorocarboxylic acids were generally higher in effluent, compared to influent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PCA analysis showed strong associations between two groups: odd chained PFCAs, PFHxA and PFSAs; and 6:2 FTS with daily inflow volume and the proportion of trade waste accepted by WWTPs.

    “PCA analysis showed strong associations between two groups: odd chained PFCAs, PFHxA and PFSAs; and 6:2 FTS with daily inflow volume and the proportion of trade waste accepted by WWTPs (as % of typical dry inflow).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS were quantified and F-53B was detected and reported in Australian WWTP matrices.

    “The compounds 6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS were quantified and F–53B detected and reported in Australian WWTP matrices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    WWTP-2 had the highest ∑21PFAS in influent and final effluent, with concentrations of 410 and 520 ng L−1, respectively.

    “WWTP-2 had the highest ∑21PFAS in influent and final effluent, with concentrations of 410 and 520 ng L−1, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    6:2 FTS was detected in 99% of aqueous samples (mean 7.3 ng L−1).

    “6:2 FTS was detected in 99% of aqueous samples (mean 7.3 ng L−1) and 26% of solid samples (mean 0.26 ng g−1 dw), At three of the larger WWTPs (-9, 330 ML day−1; -18, 143 ML day−1; and -19, 498 ML day−1), elevated total PFAS loading was a result of increased 6:2 FTS in influent (56, 23 and 38 ng L−1, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PFCA concentrations in aqueous samples increased from influent to final effluent, with levels persisting in recycled water.

    “PFCA concentrations in aqueous samples also increased from influent to final effluent, with levels persisting in recycled water, whilst PFSA concentrations within treatment plants varied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    6:2 FTS displayed the lowest mean partitioning coefficient and was primarily partitioned to the aqueous phase.

    “The calculated mean partitioning coefficients from this study reflected this trend, increasing with increased fluoroalkyl chain length, and were higher in PFSAs compared to PFCAs of similar carbon chain length; except for 6:2 FTS which displayed the lowest mean partitioning coefficient, being primarily partitioned to the aqueous phase (Table S5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PFPeA and PFDA were strongly associated, accounting for a small amount of the variation in component 5.

    “The compounds PFPeA and PFDA were strongly associated, accounting for a small amount of the variation in component 5.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PFHxA had the highest mean concentration from pooled aqueous samples in secondary effluent, final effluent, and recycled water; increasing in concentration from influent to primary, secondary and final effluent and recycled water (11, 16, 28, 28 and 32 ng L−1, respectively).

    “PFHxA had the highest mean concentration from pooled aqueous samples in secondary effluent, final effluent, and recycled water; increasing in concentration from influent to primary, secondary and final effluent and recycled water (11, 16, 28, 28 and 32 ng L−1, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were four principal components in the influent data, and five principal components in the final effluent data with eigenvalues above 1.

    “There were four principal components in the influent data, and five principal components in the final effluent data with eigenvalues above 1 (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In final effluent, there were significant, positive, strong correlations between PFPeA-PFHxA, PFPeA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFNA, PFHpA-PFHxA, PFHpA-PFNA, PFHpA-PFHxS, PFHpA-PFOS, and PFHxS-PFOS.

    “In final effluent, there were significant, positive, strong correlations between PFPeA-PFHxA, PFPeA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFNA, PFHpA-PFHxA, PFHpA-PFNA, PFHpA-PFHxS, PFHpA-PFOS, and PFHxS-PFOS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In principal component 4, PFBA was the main contributor to variation, and behaved independently of the other PFCAs, reflecting the trend seen in influent.

    “In principle component 4, PFBA was the main contributor to variation, and behaved independently of the other PFCAs, reflecting the trend seen in influent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The calculated distribution coefficients increased between primary and secondary locations by 0.17-1.22 log units for PFOS and 0.37 to 1.34 log units for PFDA.

    “This increase between primary and secondary sludge was also reflected in the calculated distribution coefficients (Table S5); where coefficients increased between primary and secondary locations by 0.17–1.22 log units for PFOS and 0.37 to 1.34 log units for PFDA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant correlations for PFBA and all other compounds; 6:2 FTS and 5 of the eleven compounds; PFBS-PFOA and PFBS-PFDA; PFHxS-PFPeA and PFHxS-PFOA; PFOS-PFPeA, PFOS-PFOA, and PFOS-PFDA.

    “There were no significant correlations for the following: 1) PFBA and all other compounds; 2) 6:2 FTS and 5 of the eleven compounds; 3) PFBS-PFOA and PFBS-PFDA; 4) PFHxS-PFPeA and PFHxS-PFOA; 5) PFOS-PFPeA, PFOS-PFOA, and PFOS-PFDA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In this study the estimated yearly mass discharged was higher for PFHpA (8.8 vs 22 kg annually) and PFHxA (43 vs 87 kg annually).

    “In our study the estimated yearly mass discharged was higher for PFHpA (8.8 vs 22 kg annually) and PFHxA (43 vs 87 kg annually).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The same annual discharge volume of 3013 GL applies to the 19 WWTPs in this study.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Daily discharge rates from the 19 WWTPs in this study varied greatly, were similar to previous Australian studies, similar to studies worldwide and were influenced primarily by daily inflow (and as an extension WWTP size).

    “Daily discharge rates from the 19 WWTPs in this study varied greatly, were similar to previous Australian studies, similar to studies worldwide and were influenced primarily by daily inflow (and as an extension WWTP size; Table S6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In component 3, PFOA and PFDA were highly associated and in component 4, PFBA was the main contributor to the variation observed.

    “In component 3, PFOA and PFDA were highly associated and in component 4, PFBA was the main contributor to the variation observed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In influent, positive, strong (r > 0.70) and significant (p < 0.05) correlations were displayed between compounds within the same compound class PFCAs (PFHxA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFNA, PFHxA-PFDA, and PFOA-PFDA) and between PFPeA-6:2 FTS and PFPeA-PFHxS.

    “In influent, positive, strong (r > 0.70) and significant (p < 0.05) correlations were displayed between compounds within the same compound class PFCAs (PFHxA-PFOA, PFHxA-PFNA, PFHxA-PFDA, and PFOA-PFDA) and between PFPeA-6:2 FTS and PFPeA-PFHxS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS were quantified, and F-53B components 6:2 Cl-PFESA and 8:2 Cl-PFESA were detected in Australian WWTPs.

    “The compounds 6:2 FTS and 8:2 FTS quantified, and F–53B components 6:2 Cl-PFESA and 8:2 Cl-PFESA were detected in Australian WWTPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In component 1, the PFSAs (PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS), odd chained PFCAs (PFPeA, PFHpA, and PFNA), and PFHxA displayed strong associations and accounted for a large proportion of the variation within the data.

    “In component 1, the PFSAs (PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS), odd chained PFCAs (PFPeA, PFHpA, and PFNA), and PFHxA displayed strong associations and accounted for a large proportion of the variation within the data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At WWTPs-5, 6 and 9, ∑21PFAS concentration was greater in influent than final effluent and largely due to PFSA and FTS concentrations.

    “At WWTPs-5, 6 and 9, ∑21PFAS concentration was greater in influent than final effluent and largely due to PFSA and FTS concentrations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PFOA had the highest mean concentration in primary effluent (23 ng L−1), displaying an increase from mean influent concentration (7.9 ng L−1).

    “PFOA had the highest mean concentration in primary effluent (23 ng L−1), displaying an increase from mean influent concentration (7.9 ng L−1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High concentrations of 6:2 FTS in WWTP effluents have been associated with AFFF use in catchments in the USA.

    “High concentrations of 6:2 FTS in WWTP effluents have been associated with AFFF use in catchments in the USA [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Houtz, 2016, Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts, Water Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Australian PFAS NEMP recommended freshwater and marine guideline values for 99% species protection are 0.23 ng L−1 PFOS and 1900 ng L−1 PFOA.

    “Within the NEMP, the recommended freshwater and marine guideline values (water concentrations) for 99% species protection are 0.23 and 1900 ng L−1 PFOS and PFOA, respectively (HEPA 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Only PFBA was detected above LOD in field blanks from WWTP-7 and WWTP-17; PFBA results for these two treatment plants were set as < LOD.

    “Only one compound (PFBA) was detected above LOD in field blanks from treatment plants WWTP-7 and WWTP-17; due to this, PFBA results for these two treatment plants were set as < LOD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    6:2 FTS has been employed in aqueous film-forming firefighting foam (AFFF) in mixtures with fluoroalkylthioamido sulfonates.

    “6:2 FTS has been employed in aqueous film-forming firefighting foam (AFFF) in mixtures with fluoroalkylthioamido sulfonates [56], used as a PFOS replacement in metal plating applications [57] and is a transformation intermediate in the degradation of more complex fluorotelomer-based compounds [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Schultz, 2004, Quantitative determination of fluorotelomer sulfonates in groundwater by LC MS/MS, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Mean recovery of all compounds in solid LCS samples ranged from 80 to 120% with s.d. < 15%, except for 6:2 FTS (61% s.d. 8%).

    “Mean recovery of all compounds in LCS samples ranged from 80 to 120% with s.d. < 15%, except for 6:2 FTS (61% s.d. 8%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Australian WWTPs represent a unique case because there is no reported PFAS manufacture and low rates of PFAS are imported for direct use in industries such as car manufacture, chrome plating, leather treatment, medical imaging, firefighting and in goods already impregnated or in products containing PFAS as impurities.

    “Australian WWTPs represent a unique case as there is no reported PFAS manufacture and low rates of PFAS are imported for direct use in industries such as car manufacture, chrome plating, leather treatment, medical imaging, firefighting and in goods already impregnated (carpets, furniture, etc.) or in products containing PFAS as impurities [13, 44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] NICNAS, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    6:2 FTS is a transformation intermediate in the degradation of more complex fluorotelomer-based compounds.

    “6:2 FTS has been employed in aqueous film-forming firefighting foam (AFFF) in mixtures with fluoroalkylthioamido sulfonates [56], used as a PFOS replacement in metal plating applications [57] and is a transformation intermediate in the degradation of more complex fluorotelomer-based compounds [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Buck, 2011, Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins, Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The increase of PFAAs has been attributed to degradation of PFAS precursor compounds, FTS and FOTH, which have been shown to transform to stable PFAAs in WWTP sludge.

    “The increase of PFAAs has been attributed to the degradation of the PFAS precursor compounds [32, 33], fluorotelomer sulfonoates (FTS) and fluorotelomer alcohols (FOTH), that have been shown to transform to stable PFAAs in WWTP sludge [34, 35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [32] Eriksson, 2017, Contribution of precursor compounds to the release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), J. Environ. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Houtz, 2016, Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts, Water Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Zhao, 2013, 6:2 Fluorotelomer alcohol aerobic biotransformation in activated sludge from two domestic wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Wang, 2011, 6:2 Fluorotelomer sulfonate aerobic biotransformation in activated sludge of waste water treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    F-53B is used as a PFOS alternative for mist suppression in metal plating applications used in China and has recently been detected in Chinese WWTPs and the environment.

    “F–53B is used as a PFOS alternative for mist suppression in metal plating applications used in China that has recently been detected in Chinese WWTPs and the environment [19, 24, 25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [19] Ruan, 2015, Identification of novel polyfluorinated ether sulfonates as PFOS alternatives in municipal sewage sludge in China, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [24] Wang, 2013, First report of a Chinese PFOS alternative overlooked for 30 Years: its toxicity, persistence, and presence in the environment, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Shi, 2015, Tissue distribution and whole body burden of the chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acid F-53B in crucian carp (Carassius carassius): evidence for a highly bioaccumulative contaminant of emerging concern, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Australia between 2006 and 2007, 99% of the directly imported PFOS was for use as a mist suppressant in metal plating, which is listed as an approved, essential use.

    “In Australia between 2006 and 2007, 99% of the directly imported PFOS was for use as a mist suppressant in metal plating which is listed as an approved, essential use [58].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] NICNAS. Alert, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    PFAS have been detected in WWTP influent, effluent and solids worldwide.

    “PFAS have been detected in WWTP influent, effluent and solids worldwide [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Arvaniti, 2015, Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In some studies, concentrations of PFCAs and PFSAs have increased from influent to final effluent.

    “In some studies, concentrations of compounds such as perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCA) and perfluorosulfonic acids (PFSA) have increased from influent to final effluent [11, 27, 31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [11] Arvaniti, 2015, Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] Arvaniti, 2014, Sorption of Perfluorinated Compounds onto different types of sewage sludge and assessment of its importance during wastewater treatment, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [31] Filipovic, 2015, Are perfluoroalkyl acids in waste water treatment plant effluents the result of primary emissions from the technosphere or of environmental recirculation?, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The use of ultrapure water and acid-washed sand as laboratory control samples may not adequately represent WWTP matrices and presents some uncertainty with analytical results.

    “The use of ultrapure water and acid-washed sand as laboratory control samples may not adequately represent WWTP matrices (and the associated interferences) and present some uncertainty with analytical results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Australian WWTPs have discharged an estimated 33 kg PFOS and 67 kg PFOA annually.

    “An Australian-wide study measuring nine PFAS in WWTP effluent (range from n. d. to 240 ng L−1) and biosolids, sampled in 2016, estimated that Australian WWTPs have discharged an estimated 33 kg PFOS and 67 kg PFOA, annually [37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Gallen, 2018, A mass estimate of perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) release from Australian wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    6:2 Cl-PFESA and 8:2 Cl-PFESA have been demonstrated as the major components of the commercial product F-53B after purification, with a reported 6:2 Cl-PFESA content of 77.6% and 8:2 Cl-PFESA comprising an unreported percentage of the remaining fraction.

    “These compounds have been demonstrated as the major components of the commercial product F–53B after purification, with a reported 6:2 Cl-PFESA content of 77.6% and 8:2 Cl-PFESA comprising an unreported percentage of the remaining fraction [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Ruan, 2015, Identification of novel polyfluorinated ether sulfonates as PFOS alternatives in municipal sewage sludge in China, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    6:2 FTS has been used as a PFOS replacement in metal plating applications.

    “6:2 FTS has been employed in aqueous film-forming firefighting foam (AFFF) in mixtures with fluoroalkylthioamido sulfonates [56], used as a PFOS replacement in metal plating applications [57] and is a transformation intermediate in the degradation of more complex fluorotelomer-based compounds [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Wang, 2013, Fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and their potential precursors, Environ. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Linear calibration curves had r2 > 0.99.

    “Linear calibration curves were prepared by gravimetric dilution of a mixed PFAS standard solution (100 ng mL−1 in methanol) with methanol to 9 levels with r2 > 0.99.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Mean recovery of all compounds in aqueous LCS samples ranged from 80 to 120% with s.d. < 15%, except for PFDS (72%, s.d. 13%), 8:2 Cl-PFESA (73%, s.d. 7%), PFTrA (70%, s.d. 6%) and PFTeA (76%, s.d. 6%).

    “Mean recovery of all compounds in LCS samples ranged from 80 to 120% with s.d. < 15%, except for PFDS (72%, s.d. 13%), 8:2 Cl-PFESA (73%, s.d. 7%), PFTrA (70%, s.d. 6%) and PFTeA (76%, s.d. 6%) (Table S2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most PFAS are recalcitrant through conventional water treatment processes, and therefore wastewater effluents can contain PFAS originating from domestic and industrial sources.

    “Most PFAS are recalcitrant through conventional water treatment processes and, therefore, wastewater effluents can contain PFAS that has originated from domestic and industrial sources [11, 12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [11] Arvaniti, 2015, Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] Hu, 2016, Detection of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in U.S. Drinking water linked to industrial sites, military fire training areas, and wastewater treatment plants, Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Australian metal plating industry has no need to switch to alternatives like F-53B as PFOS is still approved for use.

    “The Australian metal plating industry has no need to switch to alternatives like F–53B as PFOS is still approved for use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The distribution of PFCAs and PFSAs are WWTP specific and vary in final effluent independently of each other.

    “This implies the distribution of PFCAs and PFSAs are WWTP specific and vary in final effluent independently of each other.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both PFOA and PFHxA have displayed net positive increases from influent to effluent, associated with diPAP and unknown PFAS precursor degradation in WWTP influent and sludge in three Swedish WWTPs.

    “Furthermore, both PFOA and PFHxA have displayed net positive increases from influent to effluent, associated with diPAP and unknown PFAS precursor degradation in WWTP influent and sludge in three Swedish WWTPs [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Eriksson, 2017, Contribution of precursor compounds to the release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), J. Environ. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Degradation of 6:2 FTOH in activated sludge has been demonstrated to produce the corresponding 5:3 acid, which is then degraded further to PFHxA.

    “Furthermore, degradation of the compound 6:2 FTOH in activated sludge has been demonstrated to produce the corresponding 5:3 acid, which is then degraded further to PFHxA [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Zhao, 2013, 6:2 Fluorotelomer alcohol aerobic biotransformation in activated sludge from two domestic wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The difference in estimated yearly mass discharged for PFHpA and PFHxA may be a result of changing PFAS use patterns or bias introduced through the WWTPs selected and sampling design each study.

    “This difference may be a result of changing PFAS use patterns or bias introduced through the WWTPs selected and sampling design each study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Australia, PFOS is still employed in approved uses and there are no current restrictions on PFHxS or PFBS.

    “Furthermore, in Australia, PFOS is still employed in approved uses and there are no current restrictions on PFHxS or PFBS [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In the 2014 study, they estimated a national ∑9PFAS discharge from Australian WWTPs as 175 kg per year in Australian WWTP effluent.

    “In their study, they estimated a national ∑9PFAS discharge from Australian WWTPs as 175 kg per year in Australian WWTP effluent [37].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Gallen, 2018, A mass estimate of perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) release from Australian wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Little transformation of 6:2 FTOH to PFPeA was observed as the intermediary product 5:2s FTOH was likely volatilized before biotransformation could occur.

    “Little transformation of 6:2 FTOH to PFPeA was observed as the intermediary product 5:2s FTOH was likely volatilized before biotransformation could occur.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Zhao, 2013, 6:2 Fluorotelomer alcohol aerobic biotransformation in activated sludge from two domestic wastewater treatment plants, Chemosphere source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The strong associations of these compounds and their contribution to the observed variation in influent data may reflect Australian PFAS usage trends and PFAS loading within specific WWTP catchments.

    “The strong associations of these compounds and their contribution to the observed variation in influent data may reflect Australian PFAS usage trends and PFAS loading within specific WWTP catchments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, and PFDA have been used extensively in the past.

    “In component 3, there were strong associations between PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, and PFDA, all of which have been used extensively in the past [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Buck, 2011, Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins, Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Short-odd chain PFCAs (<C8) and PFHxA have been associated as impurities, degradants and metabolites of the short-chain fluorochemistries used to replace PFOA.

    “Short-odd chain PFCAs (<C8) and PFHxA have been associated as impurities, degradants and metabolites of the short-chain fluorochemistries used to replace PFOA [4, 18, 62]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] Buck, 2011, Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins, Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Liu, 2013, Microbial degradation of polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the environment: a review, Environ. Int. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] Luz, 2019, Perfluorohexanoic acid toxicity, part I: development of a chronic human health toxicity value for use in risk assessment, Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The strong association in principal component 2 was largely a result of the larger WWTPs accepting a higher proportion of trade waste, and it shows the importance of 6:2 FTS as a possible trade waste indicator in these Australian WWTPs.

    “This strong association was largely a result of the larger WWTPs accepting a higher proportion of trade waste, however, it shows the importance of 6:2 FTS as a possible trade waste indicator in these Australian WWTPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Due to the delay of transmission of PFAS caused by hydraulic retention time within a wastewater treatment plant, the comparison of influent and effluent over the same 24-hour period may not be directly applicable.

    “Due to the delay of transmission of PFAS (caused by hydraulic retention time) within a wastewater treatment plant, the comparison of influent and effluent over the same 24-hour period may not be directly applicable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The correlations suggest similar sources of PFSAs and PFCAs and independent behavior of these compound classes within WWTPs.

    “Many PFAS were highly correlated, suggesting similar sources of PFSAs and PFCAs and independent behavior of these compound classes within WWTPs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
55 of 55

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    For the log Kd calculation, PFAS concentrations in solids and liquids at the sampled location were in equilibrium.

    “This calculation method is only an approximation as it assumed that the concentration of PFAS in solids and liquids at the sampled location were in equilibrium and does not consider the differences in effluent and sludge retention times.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Typical wastewater treatment processes are unable to remove PFAS from the final effluent.

    “Typical wastewater treatment processes are unable to remove PFAS from the final effluent.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Australian cities, sewer systems are closed, with separate stormwater sewers and low infiltration rates, so rainfall has limited effect on influent PFAS composition as opposed to pulse events from industrial effluent discharge.

    “Furthermore, unlike many parts of the world, in Australian cities, sewer systems are closed, with separate stormwater sewers and low infiltration rates, this means rainfall has limited effect on influent PFAS composition as opposed to pulse events from industrial effluent discharge.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The same annual discharge volume of 3013 GL applies to the 19 WWTPs in this study.

    “Assuming the same annual discharge volume of 3013 GL and using mean annual discharge rates from the 19 WWTPs in this study, we calculated an estimated discharge of ∑21PFAS of 339 kg.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • PFHxS, PFBS, PFOS, and PFOA have been reported at the highest concentrations when assessing similar suites of PFAS in other studies.

    “all of which are analytes that have been reported at the highest concentrations when assessing similar suites of PFAS in other studies (Coggan et al., 2019; Sardiña et al., 2019).”

    From Occurrence, transformation, and transport of PFAS entering, leaving, and flowing past wastewater treatment plants with diverse land uses (2024) · cites this paper as Coggan et al., 2019

    In Results and discussion, under “PFAS in WWTP matrices” (page not provided), PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS rank among the four highest mean concentrations in aqueous samples. PFBS ranks ninth in aqueous samples and seventh in solids, so the paper does not support describing all four as occurring at the highest concentrations. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • WWTPs are not designed to remove PFAS from influent.

    “Because of the novelty of PFAS as a contaminant of concern, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not designed to remove PFAS from influent, often resulting in measured effluent concentrations exceeding influent concentrations (Coggan et al., 2019; Dalahmeh et al., 2018; Hamid and Li, 2016; Lenka et al., 2021).”

    From Occurrence, transformation, and transport of PFAS entering, leaving, and flowing past wastewater treatment plants with diverse land uses (2024) · cites this paper as Coggan et al., 2019

  • Measured effluent PFAS concentrations often exceed influent concentrations at WWTPs.

    “Because of the novelty of PFAS as a contaminant of concern, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not designed to remove PFAS from influent, often resulting in measured effluent concentrations exceeding influent concentrations (Coggan et al., 2019; Dalahmeh et al., 2018; Hamid and Li, 2016; Lenka et al., 2021).”

    From Occurrence, transformation, and transport of PFAS entering, leaving, and flowing past wastewater treatment plants with diverse land uses (2024) · cites this paper as Coggan et al., 2019

  • Coggan et al. (2019) observed mean PFAS concentrations increase from 76 ng/L in influent to 140 ng/L in effluent across 19 WWTPs in Australia.

    “Coggan et al. (2019) observed mean PFAS concentrations increase from 76 ng/L in influent to 140 ng/L in effluent across 19 WWTPs in Australia.”

    From Occurrence, transformation, and transport of PFAS entering, leaving, and flowing past wastewater treatment plants with diverse land uses (2024) · cites this paper as Coggan et al. (2019)

  • Tributaries that join Little Neshaminy Creek between sites 11-12 could also be a potential source of PFDA in the system.

    “Tributaries that join Little Neshaminy Creek between sites 11-12 could also be a potential source of PFDA in the system, although several studies have observed PFDA in STP outfalls.”

    From Using a Time-of-Travel Sampling Approach to Quantify Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Stream Loading and Source Inputs in a Mixed-Source, Urban Catchment (2024) · cites this paper as [45]

    The Results and discussion section, “PFAS in WWTP matrices” (page unavailable), reports a significant increase in PFDA between influent and final effluent at Australian wastewater treatment plants. It does not address Little Neshaminy Creek, tributaries between sites 11–12, or whether those tributaries could supply PFDA; searches for those locations and for tributary sources found no relevant passage. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Influent PCA variance percentages do not sum to the reported total

    Minor

    The four listed component percentages sum to 91.22%, not the reported 93.2%.

    Reported 93.2 · recomputed 91.22

  • PFBA is reported as detected in 100% of aqueous samples despite results set below detection

    Minor

    The methods say PFBA results for WWTP-7 and WWTP-17 were set below the detection limit, but Table 2 reports a 100% aqueous detection rate for PFBA.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

7 of the 66 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Coggan, T. L., Moodie, D., Kolobaric, A., Szabo, D., Shimeta, J., Crosbie, N. D., Lee, E., Fernandes, M., & Clarke, B. O.
Affiliations
  • RMIT University (AU)
  • Melbourne Water (AU)
  • Water Corporation of Western Australia (Australia) (AU)
  • Flinders University (AU)
Corresponding author
Coggan, Timothy L.
ORCID
Venue
Heliyon
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2019-08
Volume
5
Issue
8
Pages
e02316
ISSN
2405-8440 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02316
PMC
PMC6716228
OpenAlex
W2969674960
Cited by
327
References
66
Citations by year
2026: 43 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 23
FWCI
12.07
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Heliyon (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion)
  • Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, Australian Government
  • Water Research Australia
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Environmental Chemistry and Analysis
Keywords
per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, wastewater treatment plants, PFAS emissions, perfluorocarboxylic acids, perfluorinated sulfonic acids, fluorotelomer sulfonates, trade waste, influent and effluent concentrations, aquatic ecosystems

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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