Trihalomethanes in chlorine and bromine disinfected swimming pools: air-water distributions and human exposure
Abstract
This first study of trihalomethanes (THMs) in swimming pools using bromine agents for water disinfection under real conditions shows that the mixtures of these compounds are largely dominated by bromoform in a similar process as chloroform becomes the dominant THM in pools disinfected with chlorine agents. Bromoform largely predominates in air and water of the pool installations whose concentration changes are linearly correlated. However, the air concentrations of bromoform account for about 6-11% of the expected concentrations according to theoretical partitioning defined by the Henry law. Bromoform in exhaled air of swimmers is correlated with the air concentrations of this disinfectant by-product in the pool building. Comparison of the THM exhaled air concentrations between swimmers and volunteers bathing in the water without swimming or standing in the building outside the water suggest that physical activity enhance exposure to these disinfectant by-products. They also indicate that in swimming pools, besides inhalation, dermal absorption is a relevant route for the incorporation of THMs, particularly those with lower degree of bromination.
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THM concentrations in alveolar air were highest for swimmers, followed by those bathing in pools without exercise, and lowest for those standing beside the pools.
“The THM concentrations in alveolar air were highest for swimmers followed by those bathing in the pools without exercise and were lowest for those standing beside the pools (Lourencetti et al., 2012).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Lourencetti et al., 2012
Cites
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“…as disinfection processes and chemicals, water source, pH, temperature, concentration of residual chlorine, residence time, reaction time, total or organic carbon and disturbance (Kristensen et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2009; Panyakapo et al., 2008; Thacker and Nitnaware, 2003; Wang et al., 2010).”
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Lourencetti, C., Ballester, C., Fernández, P., Marco, E., Prado, C., Periago, J. F., & Grimalt, J. O. (2010) · Analytica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.12.040 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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Huang, B., Lei, C., Wei, C., & Zeng, G. (2014) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.013 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs
Chowdhury, S., Alhooshani, K., & Karanfil, T. (2014) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.017 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Yang, L., Chen, X., She, Q., Cao, G., Liu, Y., Chang, V. W.-C., & Tang, C. Y. (2018) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
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Health impact of disinfection by-products in swimming pools
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Self-citationInfluence of physical activity in the intake of trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools
Marco, E., Lourencetti, C., Grimalt, J. O., Gari, M., Fernández, P., Font-Ribera, L., Villanueva, C. M., & Kogevinas, M. (2015) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Lourencetti, C., Grimalt, J. O., Marco, E., Fernandez, P., Font-Ribera, L., Villanueva, C. M., & Kogevinas, M.
- Affiliations
- Center for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Grimalt, Joan O.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Environment International
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-09
- Volume
- 45
- Pages
- 59-67
- ISSN
- 0160-4120 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2124732401
- Cited by
- 97
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 4.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environment International (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Generalitat de Catalunya
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Indoor Air Quality and Microbial Exposure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- trihalomethanes, bromoform, chloroform, swimming pools, bromine disinfection, chlorine disinfection, disinfection by-products, air-water partitioning, Henry's law, human exposure, exhaled breath, swimmers, physical activity, percutaneous absorption, inhalation exposure
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollutants, Bromine, Chlorine, Chloroform, Disinfectants, Disinfection, Environmental Exposure, Humans, Swimming Pools, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Trihalomethanes, Halogenation
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