Characteristics of trihalomethane (THM) production and associated health risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods
Abstract
Swimming pool water must be treated to prevent infections caused by microbial pathogens. In Korea, the most commonly used disinfection methods include the application of chlorine, ozone/chlorine, and a technique that uses electrochemically generated mixed oxidants (EGMOs). The purpose of this study was to estimate the concentrations of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) in indoor swimming pools adopting these disinfection methods, and to examine the correlations between the concentrations of THMs and TTHMs and other factors affecting the production of THMs. We also estimated the lifetime cancer risks associated with various exposure pathways by THMs in swimming pools. Water samples were collected from 183 indoor swimming pools in Seoul, Korea, and were analyzed for concentrations of each THM, TOC, and the amount of KMnO(4) consumption. The free chlorine residual and the pH of the pool water samples were also measured. The geometric mean concentrations of TTHMs in the swimming pool waters were 32.9+/-2.4 microg/L for chlorine, 23.3+/-2.2 microg/L for ozone/chlorine, and 58.2+/-1.7 microg/L for EGMO. The concentrations of THMs differed significantly among the three treatment methods, and the correlation between THMs and TTHMs and the other factors influencing THMs varied. The lifetime cancer risk estimation showed that, while risks from oral ingestion and dermal exposure to THMs are mostly less than 10(-6), which is the negligible risk level defined by the US EPA, however swimmers can be at the greater risk from inhalation exposure (7.77x10(-4)-1.36x10(-3)).
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Ozone/chlorine seems to be the most chemical-safe disinfection method in terms of formation of THMs, HAAs, HANs and chloral hydrate.
“Ozone/chlorine seems to be the most chemical-safe method in terms of the formation of THMs, HAAs, HANs and chloral hydrate (Lee et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2010).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Lee et al., 2009
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- Authors
- Lee, J., Ha, K.-T., & Zoh, K.-D.
- Affiliations
- Seoul National University (KR)
- Seoul Metropolitan Government (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Zoh, Kyung-Duk
- ORCID
- Zoh, Kyung-Duk
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-03
- Volume
- 407
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1990-1997
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1983176982
- Cited by
- 143
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 2.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Advanced oxidation water treatment
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- trihalomethanes, total trihalomethanes, swimming pool water, disinfection by-products, chlorine disinfection, lifetime cancer risk, inhalation exposure, indoor swimming pools, total organic carbon
- MeSH terms
- Chlorine, Disinfection, Female, Humans, Male, Neoplasms, Ozone, Swimming Pools, Risk Assessment, Inhalation Exposure, Trihalomethanes
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