Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in river and ground/drinking water of the Ganges River basin: Emissions and implications for human exposure
Open accessAbstract
Many perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. They have been widely used in production processes and daily-use products or may result from degradation of precursor compounds in products or the environment. India, with its developing industrialization and population moving from traditional to contemporary lifestyles, represents an interesting case study to investigate PFAS emission and exposure along steep environmental and socioeconomic gradients. This study assesses PFAS concentrations in river and groundwater (used in this region as drinking water) from several locations along the Ganges River and estimates direct emissions, specifically for PFOS and PFOA. 15 PFAS were frequently detected in the river with the highest concentrations observed for PFHxA (0.4-4.7 ng L(-1)) and PFBS (<MQL - 10.2 ng L(-1)) among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively. Prevalence of short-chain PFAS indicates that the effects of PFOA and PFOS substitution are visible in environmental samples from India. The spatial pattern of C5-C7 PFCAs co-varied with that of PFOS suggesting similar emission drivers. PFDA and PFNA had much lower concentrations and covaried with PFOA especially in two hotspots downstream of Kanpur and Patna. PFOS and PFOA emissions to the river varied dramatically along the transect (0.20-190 and 0.03-150 g d(-1), respectively). PFOS emission pattern could be explained by the number of urban residents in the subcatchment (rather than total population). P…
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Sharma et al. reported that dominance of short-chain PFAS in Ganges River, India indicated the effect of PFOS substitution with short-chain PFAS over time.
“Sharma et al. (2016) reported that dominance of short-chain PFAS in Ganges River, India indicated the effect of PFOS substitution with short chain PFAS over time.”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
PFAS concentrations in Danube bank filtration samples are slightly lower than, but within the same magnitude as, those reported for the Ganges and rivers in northern China.
“Compared to the limited number of global studies, PFAS concentrations in Danube bank filtration samples are slightly lower, but remain within the same magnitude as those reported for the Ganges [112] and rivers in northern China [72].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [112]
Sharma et al. (2016) detected 15 PFAS in water samples across the Ganges, India's largest river.
“An extensive study investigating PFAS pollution in groundwater and river water across the Ganges, India’s largest river, detected 15 PFAS in water samples (Sharma et al., 2016).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
Discharge of PFOS to the Ganges River varied along the transect from 0.03 to 150 g d−1.
“The discharge of PFOA and PFOS to the Ganges River varied dramatically along the transect (0.2–190 and 0.03–150 g d−1, respectively), and in groundwater samples, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and PFBS had the highest concentrations among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively (Sharma et al., 2016).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
Emissions from urban residents living along the bank of the Ganges River are likely responsible for PFCAs and PFSAs pollution.
“The emissions from urban residents living along the bank of the Ganges River are likely responsible for PFCAs and PFSAs pollution, whereas PFAS pollution in groundwater is likely due to infiltration, spills, and the use of river water for irrigation purposes.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
The prevalence of short-chain PFAS in the Ganges is due to the substitution of PFOA and PFOS during 2009-2016.
“The prevalence of these short-chain PFAS are due to the substitution of PFOA and PFOS during 2009–2016.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
PFAS pollution in groundwater in the Ganges region is likely due to infiltration, spills, and the use of river water for irrigation.
“The emissions from urban residents living along the bank of the Ganges River are likely responsible for PFCAs and PFSAs pollution, whereas PFAS pollution in groundwater is likely due to infiltration, spills, and the use of river water for irrigation purposes.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
Among PFAS detected by Sharma et al. (2016) in the Ganges, PFHxA (0.4-4.7 ng L−1) and PFBS (<MQL-10.2 ng L−1) had the highest concentrations.
“Among the detected PFAS, PFHxA (0.4–4.7 ng L−1) and perfluorobutanoic sulfonate (PFBS) (<Method Quantitation Limit (MQL) – 10.2 ng L−1) had the highest concentrations.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
Discharge of PFOA to the Ganges River varied along the transect from 0.2 to 190 g d−1.
“The discharge of PFOA and PFOS to the Ganges River varied dramatically along the transect (0.2–190 and 0.03–150 g d−1, respectively), and in groundwater samples, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and PFBS had the highest concentrations among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively (Sharma et al., 2016).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
In groundwater samples from the Ganges region, PFBA and PFBS had the highest concentrations among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively.
“The discharge of PFOA and PFOS to the Ganges River varied dramatically along the transect (0.2–190 and 0.03–150 g d−1, respectively), and in groundwater samples, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and PFBS had the highest concentrations among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively (Sharma et al., 2016).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sharma et al., 2016
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References 74 · Cited by 353
- Authors
- Sharma, B. M., Bharat, G. K., Tayal, S., Larssen, T., Bečanová, J., Karásková, P., Whitehead, P. G., Futter, M. N., Butterfield, D., & Nizzetto, L.
- Affiliations
- TERI University (IN)
- Energy and Resources Institute (IN)
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NO)
- Masaryk University (CZ)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Sharma, Brij Mohan
- Nizzetto, Luca
- ORCID
- Venue
- Environmental Pollution
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-01
- Volume
- 208
- Issue
- Pt B
- Pages
- 704-713
- ISSN
- 0269-7491 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2193481253
- Cited by
- 353
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9
- FWCI
- 6.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Pollution (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Journal of Media Literacy Education (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Assessing health, livelihoods, ecosystem services and poverty alleviation in populous deltas (NE/J003085/1)
- Department for International Development (DFID)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)
- Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Keywords
- perfluorinated compounds, PFAS emissions, Ganges River, river pollution, groundwater, drinking water, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorohexanoic acid, PFBS, short-chain PFAS, human exposure, urban population, perfluorodecanoic acid, PFNA, perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorinated carboxylic acids, industrial pollution, India
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Humans, India, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Rivers, Groundwater, Drinking Water
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