The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The role of presence in virtual reality exposure therapy
Open accessAbstract
A growing body of literature suggests that virtual reality is a successful tool for exposure therapy in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Virtual reality (VR) researchers posit the construct of presence, defined as the interpretation of an artificial stimulus as if it were real, to be a presumed factor that enables anxiety to be felt during virtual reality exposure therapy (VRE). However, a handful of empirical studies on the relation between presence and anxiety in VRE have yielded mixed findings. The current study tested the following hypotheses about the relation between presence and anxiety in VRE with a clinical sample of fearful flyers: (1) presence is related to in-session anxiety; (2) presence mediates the extent that pre-existing (pre-treatment) anxiety is experienced during exposure with VR; (3) presence is positively related to the amount of phobic elements included within the virtual environment; (4) presence is related to treatment outcome. Results supported presence as a factor that contributes to the experience of anxiety in the virtual environment as well as a relation between presence and the phobic elements, but did not support a relation between presence and treatment outcome. The study suggests that presence may be a necessary but insufficient requirement for successful VRE.
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“Research on the sense of presence and reality judgments has been conducted in VRET (Gromer et al., 2019; Cummings and Bailenson, 2016, Price and Anderson, 2007; Baños et al., 2000), but no studies have been found in the literature on these topics in ICBTs.”
From An internet-based treatment for flying phobia using 360° images: A feasibility pilot study (2022) · cites this paper as Price and Anderson, 2007
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In the citing paper
“In terms of treatment efficacy, research has also suggested that, although presence is linked to the anxiety experienced during the exposure, there is no direct relationship between sense of presence and treatment outcomes (Price et al., 2011; Price and Anderson, 2007; Tardif et al., 2019).”
From An Internet-based treatment for Flying Phobia using 360° images: Study protocol for a feasibility pilot study (2021) · cites this paper as Price and Anderson, 2007
In the citing paper
“However, studies show unclear relationships between presence and emotions. Some studies found significant positive correlations, [56,57], some did not [54,58,59], and some even found negative correlations [60,61].”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [56]
In the citing paper
“Price and Anderson [56] reported similar results for fear of flying: presence contributed to the experience of anxiety, and it was associated with peak fear ratings during the first VRET session, but they did not find a relationship between presence and treatment response.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [56]
In the citing paper
“suggesting that presence is a necessary but insufficient requirement for symptom reduction (Price and Anderson 2007), congruent with the 2004 study.”
From Better, Virtually: the Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as Price and Anderson 2007
In the citing paper
“presence did not moderate outcomes”
From Better, Virtually: the Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as Price and Anderson 2007
In the citing paper
“A 2007 study on VR exposure for aviophobia found that while presence partially mediated the association between pre-existing anxiety and distress during exposure”
From Better, Virtually: the Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as Price and Anderson 2007
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Citations
Cites
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Évaluation et intervention en thérapie cognitivo-comportementale
Graziani, P., & Romo, L. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-77964-0.00006-4
Corporal, N. (2024) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.251653
Aktura, S. Ç., & Sarıtaş, S. Ç. (2024) · Advances in Integrative Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.aimed.2024.12.007
İnözü, M., Kargı, B., Üzümcü, E., Eroğlu, E. Ö., Usta, E., Durmuş, D. C., Tulek, G., Tulek, C., Topcu, Y., & Yıldız, M. E. (2025) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.70128
Evoking Emotions in Virtual Reality: A Comparative Study of Simulation Methods
Schier, F., Senechal, N., Badeja, D., & McGinity, M. (2025) · Mensch und Computer (MuC) · doi:10.1145/3743049.3748559
Presence in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy Systems
Ling, Y. (2014) · Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) · doi:10.4233/uuid:6c095bf6-f841-4df5-a62a-c94d2f59036c
Nah, S., & Atkinson, L. (2025) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448251366168
Gegieckaitė, G., Zamalijeva, O., Petraškaitė, K., Nagevice, E., Lindner, P., Carlbring, P., Daele, T. V., Andersson, G., & Eimontas, J. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.89612
Caltabiano, A., Akin, A. D., Simplicio, M. D., & Zalk, N. V. (2026) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-026-01350-1
Maneuvrier, A. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/3fbb4dbfzc553z459dzba8fz7ee7a2f5ec28 · Cited by 1
Problèmes liés aux jeux d’argent et usages excessifs liés aux écrans
Rémond, J.-J. (2021) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/2c180510zde5fz4b4az8bcaz631d1c92d177
Contextual Voice Training for Student Teachers: Exploring the Role of Virtual Reality
Bostyn, L., Leyns, C., Saka, E., Vanhee, L., D’haeseleer, E., & Rombouts, E. (2026) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2026.04.037
Gegieckaitė, G., Zamalijeva, O., Petraškaitė, K., Nagevice, E., Lindner, P., Carlbring, P., Daele, T. V., Andersson, G., & Eimontas, J. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/89612 · Cited by 1
Woo, O. K. L., Chan, W. S., & Lee, A. M. (2026) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053261462439
Investigating Different Modalities of Behavioral Approach Tests for Spider Phobia in Virtual Reality
Grensing, F., Schmücker, V., Hildebrand, A. S., Klucken, T., & Maleshkova, M. (2026) · SeGAH ... IEEE ... International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health/IEEE International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health · doi:10.1109/segah69272.2026.11653347
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Metadata
- Authors
- Price, M., & Anderson, P.
- Affiliations
- Georgia State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Anderson, Page
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 742-751
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3670421
- OpenAlex
- W2033913146
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 4.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R41MH58493-01, R41MH058493)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Keywords
- virtual reality exposure therapy, presence, anxiety, fear of flying, aviophobia, phobic stimuli, treatment outcomes, anxiety disorders, virtual worlds
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Agoraphobia, Aircraft, Desensitization, Psychologic, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Phobic Disorders, User-Computer Interface, Panic Disorder, Outcome Assessment, Health Care
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