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Models of accuracy in repeated-measures designs
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“As a result, there is a growing body of literature that argues it is more appropriate to use generalized linear mixed-effects probit/logit models to analyze these types of accuracy data (Dixon, 2008; Jaeger, 2008; Quené and van den Bergh, 2008; Song et al., 2017).”
From Cognitive Mapping Without Vision: Comparing Wayfinding Performance After Learning From Digital Touchscreen-Based Multimodal Maps vs. Embossed Tactile Overlays (2020) · cites this paper as Dixon, 2008
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Acquisition of auxiliary and copula BE in young English-speaking children
Guo, L.-Y. (2009) · doi:10.17077/etd.xsscy3jk · Cited by 2
“One-way ANOVAs showed that there were significant differences in mean log frequency between high- and lowfrequency predicate words within each predicate type (all ps < 0.001, ηp2 > 0.72).”
MethodInfluentialNeurocognitive development of inhibitory control and substance use vulnerabilityPreprint
Quach, A., Tervo‐Clemmens, B., Foran, W., Calabro, F. J., Chung, T. A., Clark, D. B., & Luna, B. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/781286 · Cited by 2
“Critically, the use of generalized mixed effect models with trial-wise data reduces ceiling effects in mean accuracy distributions (Dixon, 2008).”
MethodWhen Load is Low, Working Memory is Shielded from Long-Term Memory's InfluencePreprint
Bartsch, L. M., Frischkorn, G. T., & Shepherdson, P. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4600918 · Cited by 2
Velopharyngeal function with varying articulatory rate in normal children
Achenbaugh, W. R., Bryant, K. N., Moon, J. B., & Karnell, M. (2012) · doi:10.17077/etd.rl933r7u · Cited by 2
“Unlike Gauster, et al. (2010), the present study used mixed effects, which allows the maximization of data retention and power of the analysis (Baayen, Davidson & Bates, 2008; Dixon, 2008; Jaeger, 2008; Quene & van den Bergh, 2008).”
MethodMind wandering and contextual binding
Moorthy, K. K., & Dixon, P. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2022.2097248 · Cited by 1
“…times, only correct trials were used, and 0.5% of the response times were omitted as outliers because they were greater than 5 s or smaller than 0.25 s. Positive response rates were analyzed in terms of log odds by using a generalised linear model with a binomial link function (cf. Dixon, 2008).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationEndlich, D., Lenhard, W., Marx, P., & Richter, T. (2023) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194231204619 · Cited by 1
“For accuracy data, GLMM with a logit link function were estimated, which is the method of choice for nested data structures with binary outcomes (Dixon, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodUnderstanding User Behavior in Window Selection using Dragging for Multiple Targets
Jeong, J.-Y., & Jeong, J.-W. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713410 · Cited by 2
“However, since RM-ANOVA is robust against the normality assumption violation [16, 58], we applied RM-ANOVA to see the statistical differences between task parameters.”
Pihlaja, M., & Hartikainen, K. M. (2025) · Neuroimage Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ynirp.2025.100268 · Cited by 1
“Errors were analyzed with a generalized mixed-effects logistic regression (Dixon, 2008; Jaeger, 2008).”
Emotional distractors modulate event-related potentials even at very low contrast levels
Cipriani, G. A., Kessel, D., Álvarez, F., Fernández‐Folgueiras, U., Tapia, M., & Carretié, L. (2025) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2025.05.018 · Cited by 1
“Previous studies (e.g., Carreti � e et al., 2004, 2005, 2008, 2011, 2013b; Hinojosa et al., 2009; L � opez-Martı´n et al., 2013; Mercado et al., 2006, 2009) were mostly focused on the modulation of exogenous attention by high-level variables and properties of distractors (e.g., their category ―…”
Heß, J., Karageorgos, P., Endlich, D., & Richter, T. (2025) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2025.2586600 · Cited by 2
“For the estimation of empirical word difficulties in Step 1, we used a one-parameter logistic model (1PL or Rasch model) for the accuracy data, implemented as a Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM; Dixon, 2008) with a logit-link.”
Fawcett, J. M., Roberts, B. R. T., Hu, S., Thoms, C., Whitridge, J. W., MacLeod, C. M., & Willoughby, H. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02847-7 · Cited by 1
“For example, Lid-del and Kruschke 2018), Dixon 2008), and Jaeger 2008) each have provided simulations showing how the analysis of binomial (e.g., yes-no recognition) or ordinal (e.g., our confidence ratings) data using ANOVAs distorts error terms, biases estimation, and provides misleading…”
Bilingualism and individual differences in short-term ordered serial recall
Caissie-Gilbert, A., Guitard, D., & Saint‐Aubin, J. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2657536 · Cited by 1
“Following recommendations by Jaeger (2008) and Dixon (2008), the proportion of correct recall was analysed with logistic mixed linear modelling to ensure appropriate statistical tests of hypotheses.”
Lazareva, O. F., & Share, R. (2017) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.26451/abc.04.03.05.2017 · Cited by 1
“…multilevel generalized linear modeling (Pinheiro & Bates, 2000) allowing the use of repeated measures regression with binomial distribution that is more appropriate for our dichotomized choice data than the traditional conversion into proportions (Dixon, 2008; Young, Clark, Goffus, & Hoane, 2009).”
MethodLexically independent representation of the monotransitive structure
Arai, M., & van Gompel, R. P. G. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211061225 · Cited by 1
“We analysed the number of monotransitive completions out of all monotransitive and DO ditransitive completions by fitting a generalised linear mixed-effect model (GLMM, Dixon, 2008; Jaeger, 2008) with prime type (monotransitive, ditransitive, and baseline) as a fixed factor.”
MethodKim, H., Lee, H., Lo, R. F., Suh, E. M., & Schimmack, U. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274535 · Cited by 2
“Theoretically, this is addressed by construing the data as having equal number of observations in each condition [42].”
BackgroundReverse subtitles in foreign language learning
Ragni, V. (2023) · Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts · doi:10.1075/ttmc.00111.rag · Cited by 1
How does exogenous alerting impact endogenous preparation on a temporal cueing task
McCormick, C. R., Redden, R. S., & Klein, R. M. (2023) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2023.2250530 · Cited by 1
“ANOVAs are a common form of analysis in the fi eld of temporal cueing, although it is not appropriate for the binomial distribution that correct/incorrect error rate generates (Dixon, 2008).”
BackgroundAssessing vocabulary of bilingual German-Turkish preschool children
Mangold, M., Lenhard, W., Schindler, J., Schulz, D., & Richter, T. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000822 · Cited by 1
Ewing, L., Althaus, N., Farran, E. K., Papasavva, M., Mares, I., & Smith, M. L. (2025) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-025-02629-y · Cited by 1
“We therefore chose to apply this more complex modelling approach to our analysis, using binomial logistic mixed-effects models, which are suitable for accuracy (binomial) data (Dixon, 2008) 1 .”
Assessing children’s syntactic proficiency through a sentence repetition task
D’Ortenzio, S., & Volpato, F. (2021) · Language acquisition & language disorders · doi:10.1075/lald.65.06dor · Cited by 1
Laplante, É., Geraghty, V., Hendel, E., Sonier, R.-P., Guitard, D., & Saint‐Aubin, J. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001272
‘개구리 이야기’ 내러티브에 나타난 일반아동과 정신지체아동의 국어 동사 사용
Jun, J. S., & 이혜미 (2011) · Discourse and Cognition · doi:10.15718/discog.2011.18.2.139 · Cited by 1
Greene, N. R., & Naveh‐Benjamin, M. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k9z6m · Cited by 1
Book review: Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing
de Jong, N. H. (2023) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322231172105 · Cited by 1
Testing the construct validity of competing measurement approaches to probed mind-wandering reportsPreprint
Kane, M. J., Smeekens, B. A., Meier, M. E., Welhaf, M., & Phillips, N. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/te9yc_v1 · Cited by 1
Meier, M. E. (2014) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Hemispheric effects in binocular visual word recognition : experiments and cognitive modelling
Obregón, M. (2013) · ERA
The Effect of Thematic Roles During Grammatical Encoding in Sentence Production
김, 상., & 신, 정. (2016) · Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics · doi:10.15738/kjell.16.1.201603.77
Asymmetry in Stroop interference arising from naming practice: shape beats color
Protopapas, A., & Markatou, A. (2011) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Hipp, D. (2015) · The Open Repository - Binghamton (Binghamton University)
Acerbo, M. J., & Lazareva, O. F. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.01.033
Partridge, A. M., Prendergast, G., & Hymers, M. (2017) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/twfc5
The SNARC Effect as a Tool to Examine Crosstalk during Numerical Processing in a PRP paradigm
Tan, S. (2010) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r31d8b
Higher physical fitness levels are associated with less language decline in healthy ageingPreprint
Segaert, K., Lucas, S. J. E., Burley, C. V., Segaert, P., Milner, A. E., Ryan, M., & Wheeldon, L. R. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/197095
Higher physical fitness levels are associated with less language decline in healthy ageingPreprint
Segaert, K., Lucas, S. J. E., Burley, C. V., Segaert, P., Milner, A. E., Ryan, M., & Wheeldon, L. R. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1801.01441
Dynamicity in Speech Perception
Clare, E. J. (2019) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Does generation benefit learning for narrative and expository texts? A direct replication attempt
Schindler, J., Richter, T., & Mar, R. A. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3781
“To account for the multilevel structure of the data (idea units and participants), we estimated an additional generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) with a logit link function for recall accuracy of idea units (Dixon, 2008).”
MethodCharacteristics of mental representations in novices and experts in Java
Parastar, M. (2021)
L1 Acquisition and L2 Learning
D'Ortenzio, S., & Volpato, F. (2021) · Language acquisition & language disorders · doi:10.1075/lald.65
Supplemental Material for Dual-Task Costs in Working Memory: An Adversarial Collaboration
(2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000668.supp
A Monte Carlo Simulation of Rat Choice Behavior with Interdependent Outcomes
Frankot, M. A. (2022) · doi:10.33915/etd.11446
“prior simulations have demonstrated that binomial logistic regression generally outperforms the percent choice approach for data bound between zero and one (Dixon, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVieira, L. V., da Piedade, G. N., & Sartori, M. M. P. (2022) · Journal of Agricultural Science · doi:10.5539/jas.v14n12p59
“Assumptions about the structure of variance and covariance of errors in repeated measures experiments that are either very simple, as in the RANOVA approach, or very complex, as in the MANOVA approach, can affect the type I error rate and statistical power (Dixon, 2008).”
MethodZhu, Y., & Hu, J. (2024) · Phonetica · doi:10.1515/phon-2023-0011
Do Implicit Learning Deficit and Dyslexia Go Together? An fMRI and Behavioral Study
Wójcik, M., Beck, J. L., Chyl, K., Dynak, A., Dzięgiel‐Fivet, G., Łuniewska, M., Grabowska, A., Jednoróg, K., & Dębska, A. (2024) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12652
“Between-group differences in the SRT task were calculated with a linear mixed model: a highly recommended tool showing advantages in analyzing accuracy (Dixon, 2008) and RTs (Kliegl et al., 2011) over the classical ANOVA.”
Emotional Distractors Capture Attention even at Very Low Contrast Levels: ERP evidencePreprint
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“Previous studies (e.g., Carretié et al., 2004; 2005; 2008; 2011; 2013b; Hinojosa et al., 2009; López-Martín et al., 2013; Mercado et al., 2006; 2009) were mostly focused on the modulation of exogenous attention by high-level variables and properties of distractors (e.g., their category —words,…”
MethodResultDoes Stimulus Category Coherence Influence Visual Working Memory? A Rational Analysis
Hu, R., & Jacobs, R. A. (2024) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13498
Adaptive Processing in Word Production: More Evidence from Picture-Word Interference StudiesPreprint
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Does text generation improve learning from expository text? A conceptual replication attempt
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No relationship between gender stereotypes and mental rotation in preschool girls
Ebert, W. M., Jost, L., & Jansen, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650979
“MR accuracy was modeled using a binomial GLMM as recommended by Dixon, 2008.”
Enhancing Freehand VR Interaction Using Fingertip Deformation on User Performance
Morimoto, K., Kasahara, N., Yamanaka, S., Miyashita, H., & Watanabe, K. (2025) · ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST) · doi:10.1145/3756884.3765975
“Because ANOVA is robust against mild normality violations [17, 41], we analyzed the data via RM-ANOVA ( 𝛼 = .”
Hierarchical Bayesian Regression for experimental psychology: a case study of cognitive control
Dudey, T., Braver, T. S., Jackson, J. J., & Cooper, S. R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1643463 · Cited by 1
“While standard approaches operationalize these outcomes as proportions, this approach is sub-optimal relative to hierarchical logistic regression, even with the incorporation of available transformation methods (e.g., arcsine, empirical logit) (Jaeger, 2008; Dixon, 2008; Houpt and Bittner, 2018).”
Solier, C. (2019) · doi:10.70675/994b74e9zaa24z4213zb6f6zafb224e7752c
“Les données du prétest et du posttest ont été ajustées avec un modèle linéaire généralisé à effets mixtes avec une distribution binomiale (GLMM, Dixon, 2008).”
How Video See-Through MR Affects Pointing on Physical Devices: From Smartphones to Large Monitors
Jeong, Y., Jeong, J.-Y., Ko, H., & Jeong, J.-W. (2026) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3772363.3798595
“Despite the partial violation of normality assumptions in 𝐸𝑅 , we employed Repeated Measures ANOVA (RM-ANOVA) for both dependent variables, as RM-ANOVA is robust against such violations [5, 7, 26, 31].”
Steering through a Dynamically Varying Path
Jeong, J.-Y., & Jeong, J.-W. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790578
“Therefore, we employed RM-ANOVA, since RM-ANOVA is robust against the normality assumption violation [7, 12, 55].”
The limits of listening: How cognitive load and cognitive capacity shape effort in speech perception
Nitsan, G., Banai, K., & Ben-David, B. M. (2026) · Speech Communication · doi:10.1016/j.specom.2026.103459
Fruet, D., Mendu, S., Dias, R., Rolston, J. D., Cimignolo, S., Nollo, G., & Zenati, M. A. (2026) · World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, September 7 - 12, 2009, Munich, Germany · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-37739-5_52
Murakami, A. (2014) · Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository · doi:10.17863/cam.16509 · Cited by 20
Metadata
- Authors
- Dixon, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Dixon, Peter
- ORCID
- Dixon, Peter
- Venue
- Journal of Memory and Language
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-11
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 447-456
- ISSN
- 0749-596X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2055164605
- Cited by
- 359
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 11.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Memory and Language (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Keywords
- repeated measures designs, logistic regression, conditional logistic regression, Rasch model, generalized linear mixed models, quasi-maximum likelihood estimation, response strength, effect size heterogeneity
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