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Obesity: Prevalence, causes, consequences, management, preventive strategies and future research directions
Open accessAbstract
Obesity has emerged as one of the most pressing global public health challenges of the 21st century. Obesity has reached epidemic proportions worldwide, with over 1 billion people classified as obese in 2022, representing 13 % of the global population. Since 1975, obesity rates have tripled, and projections indicate that by 2035, around 1.9 billion adults-approximately 25 % of the world's population-will be affected. Looking further ahead to 2050, it is estimated that 3.80 billion adults, representing more than half of the anticipated global adult population, will be living with overweight or obesity. The increasing burden of obesity is associated with an alarming rise in non-communicable diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and multiple cancers, collectively contributing to over 5 million deaths annually. Obesity is driven by complex interactions between genetic, behavioral, environmental, and socioeconomic factors, with rapid urbanization and globalization accelerating the consumption of high-calorie diets and sedentary lifestyles. While historically prevalent in high-income nations, obesity rates are now rising most rapidly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with over 70 % of obese individuals living in developing nations. The economic costs of obesity are staggering, with projections estimating a global financial burden of $4.32 trillion per year by 2035, equivalent to 3 % of the global GDP. This article explores the epidemiology, determinants, health implications, and policy responses to obesity, emphasizing the urgent need for multisectoral strategies to mitigate its impact. Public health initiatives, taxation on sugar-sweetened beverages, improved food regulations, and increased physical activity promotion are essential components of evidence-based interventions. Addressing the obesity crisis requires global cooperation to implement sustainable, long-term strategies targeting both prevention and treatment.
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![Fig. 1 Body Mass Index (BMI) classifications for weight status [87].](/paper-figures/087b6757f77d4b1f926fc0ee7def9579/obesity-prevalence-causes-consequences-management-preventive-strategies-and-figure-1.jpg)
![Fig. 2 The principal factors leading to obesity. source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.](/paper-figures/64a83c6ef14b44e1895fb5af03747f42/obesity-prevalence-causes-consequences-management-preventive-strategies-and-figure-2.jpg)
![Fig. 4 The relationship between Ultra-Processed Food (UPF) foods and obesity. Source [138] licensed under CC BY 4.0.](/paper-figures/556d48d18bc74f05a3428af0b90bfd4a/obesity-prevalence-causes-consequences-management-preventive-strategies-and-figure-4.jpg)
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“Obesity substantially increases the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease, and certain cancers, while imposing enormous societal and economic burdens.[2][3][4]”
From The Triple‐Agonist Revolution: Retatrutide and the Paradigm Shift in Multi‐Hormonal Pharmacotherapy for Obesity and Cardiometabolic Comorbidities (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
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Cites
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Prenatal Dietary Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors and Its Lasting Impact on Offspring Health
Potiris, A., Daponte, N., Moustakli, E., Zikopoulos, A., Kokkosi, E., Arkouli, N., Anagnostaki, I., Vogiatzoglou, A. L., Tzeli, M., Sarella, A., et al. (2025) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics13100864 · Cited by 27
Microbiome based precision medicine through integrated multiomics and machine learning
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The clinical and economic burden of obesity in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review
Fatoye, F., Mbada, C. E., Niyi-Odumosu, F. A., Fatoye, C., Useh, U., Hakimi, Z., & Gebrye, T. (2025) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-025-01913-3 · Cited by 22
Grocic, M., Nguyen, M., & Sanyal, A. J. (2026) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.70662 · Cited by 16
Macrophage Phenotypic Switch and Obesity‐Associated Metabolic Risk: Mechanisms and Targets
Vera, K., Hemakumar, C., Bilachi, R. S., Ramírez, D. C., & Gomez-Mejiba, S. (2025) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/omcl/6710641 · Cited by 12
Metadata
- Authors
- Ahmed, S. K., & Mohammed, R. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Raparin (IQ)
- Corresponding author
- Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid
- Venue
- Metabolism Open
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2025-09
- Volume
- 27
- Pages
- 100375
- ISSN
- 2589-9368 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12486175
- OpenAlex
- W4411248990
- Semantic Scholar
- 0279e2a43f943eec9d75c66a6c5744b5650fb570
- Cited by
- 432
- References
- 239
- Citations by year
- 2026: 358 · 2025: 74
- FWCI
- 70.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Metabolism Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity and Health Practices
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
- Keywords
- obesity, obesity prevalence, obesity epidemiology, determinants of obesity, non-communicable diseases, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, economic burden of obesity, low- and middle-income countries, urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, hypercaloric diet, sugar-sweetened beverage tax, food regulation, physical activity promotion, obesity prevention, obesity treatment, multisectoral policy
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