Cited by 241COVID-19 and Mental HealthPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

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Positivity explains how COVID-19 perceived risk increases death distress and reduces happiness.

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Yıldırım, Murat, Güler, Abdurrahim·2021·Personality and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110347PMC PMC7439822

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Abstract

The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has produced an unprecedented impact on all aspects of life, including mental outcomes like death distress. This study examined the mediating effect of positivity on the association between COVID-19 related perceived risk, death distress, and happiness. Participants were 3109 Turkish adults (Mean age = 38.64 ± 10.40) who completed online measures of perceived risk, positivity, death distress, and happiness during the pandemic. Results showed that perceived risk had a significant direct effect on positivity, death distress, and happiness. Positivity had a significant direct effect on death distress and happiness. Mediation analysis indicated that positivity mediated the effect of perceived risk on death distress and happiness. Results suggest that positivity is an important aspect of developing strength-based preventions and interventions aiming to reduce psychological distress and improve happiness.

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Validation of the Dari version of the fear of COVID-19 scale and student self-efficacy as a moderator between fear of COVID-19 and mental well-being
Green, Z. A., Yıldırım, M., Faizi, F., & Jalal, R. (2023) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2023.2230546 · Cited by 4
“The observed effect may be small, but the implementation of individual-level strategies aimed at promoting positive psychological strengths/resources (e.g. student self-efficacy) could potentially yield substantial cumulative effects at the population-level (Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
Self-citation
Initial Psychological Reactions to COVID-19 of Middle Adolescents in Portugal
Brites, R., Paulino, M., Brissos, S., Gabriel, S., Alho, L., Simões, M. R., & da Silva, C. F. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20095705 · Cited by 5
From fearful to hopeful: A thematic content analysis of COVID-19 survivors’ YouTube videos
Gamboa, M. A. V. G., Galang, E. R. M., Garcia, A. C. T., Gantuangco, C. C. G., Germano, R.-C. J. D., Garcia, M. K. T. B., & Gaspar, M. A. D. (2023) · Health Care For Women International · doi:10.1080/07399332.2023.2200067 · Cited by 3
“…such as happiness, optimism, faith, and gratitude can help survivors cope properly during a time of great suffering by reducing unpleasant emotions, maintaining positive mental health, and fostering social support and hope (Moradi et al., 2021; Feng & Yin, 2021; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
Background
The impact of the initial COVID-19 lockdown on the mental health and lifestyle of children in Turkey
Morgül, E. (2023) · Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes · doi:10.21134/rpcna.2023.10.3.4 · Cited by 3
“Our results are compatible with the literature showing that adults’ risk of COVID-19 infection has been consistently associated with poor social and emotional wellbeing during the lockdown across different countries (Kim et al., 2020; Xin et al., 2020; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
BackgroundResult
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPTIMISM-PESSIMISM LEVELS OF MOTHERS AND ANXIETY LEVELS OF CHILDREN IN TURKEY DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Tongar, H. K., Ülküer, N., Yıldırım, M., Geçer, E., & Akgül, Ö. (2022) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2022.364 · Cited by 5
“The fact that people are exposed to life threats by a virus that they do not fully control and do not know how to function also triggers a sense of uncertainty (Yıldırım & Güler 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Perceived risk, illness perception and dispositional optimism related to COVID-19 among oncologic outpatients undergoing in-hospital treatments and healthy controls
Gabanelli, P., Monzani, D., Fiabane, E., Quaquarini, E., Frascaroli, M., Balletti, E., Bernardo, A., Teragni, C., Grossi, F., Pravettoni, G., et al. (2022) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2022.2065275 · Cited by 3
“…this model assessed if, compared to less optimistic people, optimists would report a lower level of COVID-19 perceived risk and if this would be associated with a lower level of distress as also underlined in previous studies (Kim et al., 2020; Sharifi-Heris et al., 2021; Yildirim & Güler, 2021).”
Result
Mental Health Status of Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-sectional Survey among the Bangladeshi Graduate Students at Dhaka CityPreprint
Husain, T., Uddin, M. M., Chowdhury, S. A., & Kalimullah, N. A. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.11.12.379487 · Cited by 4
“It could be the impact of the implementations of these virus prevention and control measures have been effective to protect people against COVID-19, the risks of a second wave and a new peak of infections may cause uncertainties among people around the world (Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
BackgroundResult
Adverse childhood experiences and spiritual well-being among Turkish people: A serial mediation through meaningful living and death obsession
Kurtuluş, H. Y., Satıcı, S., & Deniz, M. (2025) · Journal for the Study of Spirituality · doi:10.1080/20440243.2025.2558730 · Cited by 2
“I didn't want them to see that I was spent”: educators' stress and emotional labor during the COVID-19 pandemic
Leo, A., & Wilcox, K. C. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1595192 · Cited by 3
Perceived stress and death-related distress in older adults: Exploring the role of social support and emotional loneliness
Arslan, G., & Şahin, D. S. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2460914 · Cited by 2
“The Death Distress Scale (DDS) is a 9-item self-report measure designed to evaluate thoughts and feelings concerning death and dying (Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
Assessment of self-satisfaction, happiness, and quality of life (QoL) among adults: An online survey
Dehury, R., Gadiraju, P., Singh, P., Vanlalhruaii, C., Dehury, P., Devaraju, K., & Behera, S. (2024) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_1528_23 · Cited by 2
“[12] It is seen to have an impact on several positive aspects of life.”
Background
The Association Between Happiness and Spiritual Well-being in Students in Iran
Barati, M., Jormand, H., Eyvazi, S., Khamesi, F., Mozafapour, F., & Taherpour, M. (2023) · Journal of Education and Community Health · doi:10.34172/jech.2451 · Cited by 2
“On the other hand, the evidence indicated that recent situations have unprecedentedly impacted all aspects of life, including mental outcomes such as death, distress, and decreased happiness (29), and results of a study indicated that more than half of the students might have a mental disorder (30).”
Background
Al-Ghazali on The Method of Achieving Happiness
Soleh, A. K. (2023) · Psikoislamika Jurnal Psikologi dan Psikologi Islam · doi:10.18860/psikoislamika.v20i2.32275 · Cited by 2
“(Yıldırım & Güler, 2021) .”
Death Distress and Religiosity Among Spanish Patients Diagnosed With Depression and Anxiety
Armas-Arráez, M. M., Padilla, G. M., Fernández-Mateos, L. M., & Sánchez-Cabaco, A. (2023) · Omega · doi:10.1177/00302228231186369 · Cited by 2
Happily Distant or Bitter Medicine? The Impact of Social Distancing Preferences, Behavior, and Emotional Costs on Subjective Wellbeing During the Epidemic
Kelley, S., Evans, M. D., & Kelley, J. (2023) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10149-0 · Cited by 2
Caregiver Worry of Infection and Family Co-existence Difficulty and Association With Change in Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms During the Initial COVID-19 Lockdown in the UK and Turkey
Morgül, E., Kallitsoglou, A., & Essau, C. A. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221149183 · Cited by 5
Determining the relationship between death anxiety with depression, anxiety, and stress levels in women during the COVID-19 pandemic: A sample from Turkey
Koç, E., & Başgöl, Ş. (2022) · Population Medicine · doi:10.18332/popmed/157142 · Cited by 2
Positivity and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in COVID-19 Survivors: Mediating Role of Rumination and Fear of COVID-19.
Gunlu, A., Koç, H., Asıcı, E., & Oral, T. (2022) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2022.578 · Cited by 2
“Positiveness or positive orientation can be one of the important personal strengths that protect survivors of COVID-19 against temporary or permanent negative effects of the pandemic (Yıldırım & Güler 2021).”
Background
Indeed Death is nearer; Moderating Role of Resilience in the Relationship between Fear of COVID-19 and Death Anxiety
Gul, I., Amir, N., & Khan, A. K. (2022) · American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.47672/ajp.1185 · Cited by 3
Experiences of How Health and Lifestyle among Individuals with Knee Pain Have Been Influenced during the COVID-19 Pandemic, a HALLOA Study
Sunesson, E., Sylwander, C., Haglund, E., Andersson, M., & Larsson, I. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19148255 · Cited by 2
“Another study concluded that having a positive outlook on life improved health and reduced distress cause by thoughts of mortality [47].”
Background
Family Factors Affecting Adolescents’ Happiness During the Covid-19 Pandemic
Wahyuningsih, H., Novitasari, R., & Kusumaningrum, F. A. (2021) · KnE Social Sciences · doi:10.18502/kss.v4i15.8187 · Cited by 2
“Y𝚤ld𝚤r𝚤m and Güler (2020) stated that a positive outlook on self and the environment has a significant and direct effect on death distress and happiness.”
Background
Experiencing fear during the pandemic. The Polish version of the Fear of Covid-19 Scale.Preprint
Pilch, I., Kurasz, Z., & Turska–Kawa, A. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/fxez6 · Cited by 2
Embracing “COVID-normal”: Positive Personality and Posttraumatic Growth in the COVID-19 Pandemic
Prasad, A., & Johnston, K. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4691488 · Cited by 2
From Death Distress to Flourishing Amid the Ongoing Türkiye Earthquakes: Future Anxiety, Post-traumatic Growth, and Trauma-Related Meaning Making
Kovan, A. (2026) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228261455423 · Cited by 1
Psychological impact of the February 6, 2023, Türkiye earthquake: the roles of social support, hope, resilience, and death obsession
Kaya, Y., DENİZ, M. E., Erişen, Y., Satıcı, S. A., Bırni, G., & Karaağaç, Z. G. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04618-y · Cited by 1
“The original scale was developed by Dadfar and Les-ter [9], with a Turkish adaptation by Yıldırım and Güler [59].”
Influential
Childhood psychological maltreatment, depressive symptoms, and death obsession in older adults: exploring the moderating effect of meaning in life
Şahin, D. S., Arslan, G., & Uzun, K. (2026) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2026.2625852 · Cited by 1
“Prior research has demonstrated the scale’s strong internal consistency within Turkish populations (Yıldırım & Güler, 2021), and the current study also revealed high internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.87).”
Influential
Death Distress and Mental Wellbeing: Serial Mediating Roles of Meaning-Based Coping and Hope
Kütük, H., Yilmaz, F. B., Aktepe, Z. G., Okur, S., & Satıcı, S. (2025) · e-Kafkas Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.30900/kafkasegt.1561275 · Cited by 1
“The adaptation of the scale to the Turkish sample was carried out by Yıldırım and Güler (2021).”
Resilience and Adaptation Strategies for the Franschhoek Rond and Bont Community-based Tourism Route during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Ndita, A., & Bama, H. (2024) · Studia Periegetica · doi:10.58683/sp.1979 · Cited by 1
Exploring The Interplay of Multifaceted Factors
Surman, S. H., Dadzie, J., & Ezugwu, I. (2024) · Edukasiana: Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan · doi:10.56916/ejip.v3i3.781 · Cited by 1
Older women’s experience with COVID-19 pandemic: A study of risk perception and coping among culturally and linguistically diverse population in South Australia
Siddiquee, N., Hamiduzzaman, M., McLaren, H., & Patmisari, E. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301366 · Cited by 1
Death Anxiety, Mental Health and Meaning in Life During COVID-19
Temel, M., Ok, E., & Boyacıoğlu, N. E. (2023) · Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.21020/husbfd.1185854 · Cited by 2
The Mediating Role of Fear of COVID-19 in the Association between COVID-19–Related Work Stressors and Subjective Well-being
Gritzka, S., Angerer, P., & Diebig, M. (2023) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000002997
“63 Other cross-sectional studies among healthcare workers found direct associations between perceived risk of infection and psy-chologicalwell-being, 64 general mental health, 15 happiness, 65 and perceived stress.”
Background
After the COVID-19 pandemic, are residents in rural areas happier than those in urban areas?
Mayuzumi, Y. (2023) · Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science · doi:10.1007/s41685-023-00312-8 · Cited by 1
Perceived COVID‐induced racism and contextual predictors of fear and psychological distress among Black men
Li, K. C., Cipollina, R., & Sanchez, D. T. (2023) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12857 · Cited by 2
“…factors were expected to be predictive of fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress due to recent findings with non-Black samples (COVID-19 cases: Zhang et al., 2020; COVID-related life events: Rossi et al., 2021; Li, Lin, et al., 2021; risk: Han et al., 2021 ; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
Enumerating happiness index during COVID-19 lockdowns using artificial intelligence techniques
Kaushik, K., Bhardwaj, A., Aggarwal, A., & Kumar, M. (2023) · International Journal of Technology Management & Sustainable Development · doi:10.1386/tmsd_00066_1 · Cited by 1
Perceived Health Risks among Teachers Working Remotely in the Era of Covid-19 Pandemic
Ramirez, S. H. (2023) · Journal of Healthcare and Biomedical Science · doi:10.31098/jhbs.v1i1.1147 · Cited by 1
“During the pandemic, optimism was found to be inversely related to anxiety, somatization, and depression (Arslan et al., 2020) and that positivity mediated the relationship between perceived risk of distress and happiness (Yldrm & Güler, 2021).”
Background
Satisfaction With Life Among Vaccinated Turkish People
Geçer, E., Yıldırım, M., Akgül, Ö., Söğütlü, L., Sezerol, M. A., & Taşçı, Y. (2022) · European Journal of Psychology Open · doi:10.1024/2673-8627/a000028 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
The Impact of Positivity and Parochial Altruism on Protective Behaviours during the First COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy
Solorzano, C. S., Panasiti, M. S., Pucchio, A. D., & Grano, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191610153 · Cited by 3
“In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, positivity was a significant predictor of death distress and happiness [25].”
BackgroundMethod
Predictors of Change in Children’s Internalising and Externalising Behaviour Before and During the Initial COVID-19 Lockdown in the UK and Turkey: A Cross-cultural ExaminationPreprint
Morgül, E., Kallitsoglou, A., & Essau, C. A. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1184183/v2 · Cited by 1
“…et al., 2021; Cohodes et al., 2021), child emotional and behavioural difficulties (Raw et al., 2021), and risk of infection (Yıldırım et al., 2021; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021; 2020; Xin et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020) have been consistently associated with poor social and…”
Background
DEATH DISTRESS AND END OF LIFE IN OLDER ADULTS LIVING ALONE
Şahin, D. S., Demir, M., Pekesen, M., & Büken, N. Ö. (2024) · The Turkish Journal of Geriatrics · doi:10.29400/tjgeri.2024.406 · Cited by 1
“In a study conducted during the Covid19 pandemic, positivity reduced death distress (16).”
Perceived Job Risk and Dark CRM: Heightened Role of Perceived Job Insecurity & Fear of COVID-19
Afshan, G., Memon, A. A., Sahibzada, U., & Mirani, M. (2021) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3948614 · Cited by 1
“Although different kinds of perceived risk have been proposed in previous studies (Jacoby & Kaplan, 1972; Yıldırım & Güler, 2020), Xie et al. (2020a) extended the hotel employees ' perceived job risk as a construct of five dimensions, namely, human, equipment, internal environment, external…”
Testing the Longitudinal Mediation of Death Distress in the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Subjective Vitality During Emerging Adulthood Using a Two‐Wave Longitudinal Model.
Yılmaz, M. F., Okur, S., Kütük, H., & Satıcı, B. (2026) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.70170
Does Free Education Improve Early-Adulthood Subjective Well-being? Evidence from Rural China
Yang, C., Wu, L., & Xu, R. (2026) · International Review of Economics & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.iref.2026.105599
Hope for happiness in an emerging country during the COVID-19 pandemic
Sulku, S. N., Gul, L., Kaya, Y., & Cosar, K. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-05060-w
“A rise in happiness levels was observed in the elderly population after the pandemic, given their survival during the pandemic period [66, 69, 70].”
The relationship between death distress and fertility intentions in married women after the earthquake
Batı, S., & Kıyak, S. (2026) · Primary Health Care Research and Development · doi:10.1017/s1463423626101315
“The third component of death distress identified in this sample was death obsession, which involves recurring thoughts, intrusive images, and rumination focused on one ’ s own death or the death of significant others (Y ı ld ı r ı m and Güler, 2021).”
AgrAbility Quality of Life Profile Transitions and Relationships with Independent Living and Working
French, B. F., Fetsch, R. J., & Ullrich-French, S. C. (2026) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2026.2685559
Religious Faith and Death Obsession: A Serial Mediation Model of Resilient Mindset, Resilience, Presence of Meaning in Life, and Self-Esteem in Türkiye.
Turan, M. E., Karagöz, L., & Cengiz, S. (2026) · Omega · doi:10.1177/00302228261455640
Modeling the relationship between residents’ happiness and human settlement quality: An IGSA-MLPNN-GARSON approach
Hu, J., Song, H., & Peng, W. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0347769
Perceived health threat, social media use, networking motivations, and life satisfaction among emerging adults in the post-COVID-19 era: A cross-sectional study
Güler, A., Öztürk, A., Yıldırım, M., & Gómez-Salgado, J. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000045734
“[12] Following this, many individuals depend on social media platforms to maintain social connections and everyday routines.”
Self-citation
Coping with the COVID-19 pandemic: a cluster analysis in a representative sample
Greškovičová, K., Šoková, B., Baránková, M., & Halamová, J. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08302-z
“…perception was also associated with poorer mental health outcomes —including heightened anxiety, stress, depression, and increased use of maladaptive coping strategies like avoidance or denial (Ahorsu et al., 2022 ; Caycho-Rodríguez et al., 2024; Tzur Bitan et al., 2020 ; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021).”
I Can’t Sleep! Death Distress, Self-Control, Bedtime Procrastination, and Substance Misuse
Yilmaz, F. B., Satıcı, S., & Tekin, E. (2025) · Psychiatric quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-025-10175-1
“88, and .91 in the Turkish adaptation study [24].”
Impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on stress among the Bruneian military personnel: a cross-sectional study
Talip, T. (2025) · BMJ Military Health · doi:10.1136/military-2024-002933
Corona Virus Saga: How Happy were the People of Niger State from the slant of income?
Ilyasu, Y., & Ewugi, M. (2025) · Lapai Journal of Economics · doi:10.4314/lje.v8i2.6
“The high death rate has not only caused physical pain to families but a signal of psychological fear and burden around the globe (Yıldırım & Güler, 2021) which was a colossal treat to global happiness.”
The determinants and structure of happiness in different urban environments
Golubchenko, S., Ishibashi, S., So, T., & Taniguchi, M. (2024) · Regional Studies, Regional Science · doi:10.1080/21681376.2024.2435854
“Whereas some results show a decrease in happiness right after the pandemic started (Forte et al., 2020; Kanbayashi et al., 2021; Tsurume et al., 2021; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021), others indicate that there was no substantial change in the level of happiness in the longer term (Helliwell et al., 2021).”

Authors: Yıldırım, M., & Güler, A.
Affiliations: University of Leicester (GB)
Corresponding author: Yıldırım, Murat
ORCID: Yıldırım, Murat
Güler, Abdurrahim
Venue: Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2021-01
Volume: 168
Pages: 110347
ISSN: 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110347
PMC: PMC7439822
OpenAlex: W3055273738
Cited by: 241
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 62
FWCI: 18.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University Institutional Repository (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, risk perception, positivity, happiness, psychological distress, mediation, strengths-based intervention, Turkish adults

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Positivity explains how COVID-19 perceived risk increases death distress and reduces happiness.

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