Pharmaceuticals, perfluorosurfactants, and other organic wastewater compounds in public drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer
Open accessAbstract
Approximately 40% of U.S. residents rely on groundwater as a source of drinking water. Groundwater, especially unconfined sand and gravel aquifers, is vulnerable to contamination from septic systems and infiltration of wastewater treatment plant effluent. In this study, we characterized concentrations of pharmaceuticals, perfluorosurfactants, and other organic wastewater compounds (OWCs) in the unconfined sand and gravel aquifer of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA, where septic systems are prevalent. Raw water samples from 20 public drinking water supply wells on Cape Cod were tested for 92 OWCs, as well as surrogates of wastewater impact. Fifteen of 20 wells contained at least one OWC; the two most frequently-detected chemicals were sulfamethoxazole (antibiotic) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (perfluorosurfactant). Maximum concentrations of sulfamethoxazole (113 ng/L) and the anticonvulsant phenytoin (66 ng/L) matched or exceeded maximum reported concentrations in other U.S. public drinking water sources. The sum of pharmaceutical concentrations and the number of detected chemicals were both significantly correlated with nitrate, boron, and extent of unsewered residential and commercial development within 500 m, indicating that wastewater surrogates can be useful for identifying wells most likely to contain OWCs. Septic systems appear to be the primary source of OWCs in Cape Cod groundwater, although wastewater treatment plants and other sources were potential contributors to several wells. These results show that drinking water supplies in unconfined aquifers where septic systems are prevalent may be among the most vulnerable to OWCs. The presence of mixtures of OWCs in drinking water raises human health concerns; a full evaluation of potential risks is limited by a lack of health-based guidelines and toxicity assessments.
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Nitrate and B can have elevated concentrations in groundwater due to contamination with septic leachate.
“Nitrate and B can have elevated concentrations in groundwater due to contamination with septic leachate.55”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
PFAS and pharmaceuticals are known to co-occur in sources associated with human-waste disposal (e.g., septic-system/landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plants).
“PFAS and pharmaceuticals, however, are known to co-occur in sources associated with human-waste disposal (e.g., septic-system/landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plants).10,54−56”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
All three sources (septic/landfill leachate, wastewater effluent, stormwater runoff) can have elevated B and total N concentrations.
“All three sources can have elevated B and total N concentrations,55,58,59 so they could produce similar chemical patterns with respect to PFAS, pharmaceuticals, B, and total N.”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
The four wells with non-detectable nitrate had ≤13 μg/L boron, consistent with background concentrations in Cape Cod groundwater (~10 μg/L).
“The four wells with non-detectable NO 3 -had ≤13 μg/L B, consistent with background concentrations in Cape Cod groundwater (~10 μg/L B; Schaider et al., 2014).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
The authors previously found 18 organic wastewater compounds in public supply wells on Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
“We previously found 18 OWCs in public supply wells on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, a region served by a sand and gravel aquifer where 85% of residents rely on onsite wastewater treatment systems (Schaider et al., 2014).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
Simvastatin was not detected in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (<5 ng/L), in 19 US drinking water sources (<1 ng/L), or in 5 drinking water sources in Illinois (<1 ng/L).
“It was not detected in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (b5 ng/L, Schaider et al., 2014), in 19 US drinking water sources (b 1 ng/L, Benotti et al., 2009), or in 5 drinking water sources in Illinois (b1 ng/L, Illinois EPA, 2008).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
Chlorinated organophosphate flame retardants, including three detected in public wells on Cape Cod (TCEP, TDCPP, TCPP), were not detected, even though they tend to be more resistant to biodegradation than non-halogenated OPFRs.
“We did not detect chlorinated OPFRs, including three that we detected in public wells on Cape Cod (TCEP, TDCPP, TCPP; Schaider et al., 2014), even though they tend to be more resistant to biodegradation than non-halogenated OPFRs (Meyer and Bester, 2004).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
Although the authors previously found three endogenous hormones in groundwater-fed ponds on Cape Cod (3-6.5 ng/L), they did not detect hormones in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (MRLs 0.1-0.5 ng/L).
“Although we previously found three endogenous hormones in groundwater-fed ponds on Cape Cod (3-6.5 ng/L; Standley et al., 2008), we did not detect hormones in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (MRLs 0.1-0.5 ng/L; Schaider et al., 2014).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
In the authors' study of Cape Cod public supply wells, the extent of unsewered residential land use within 500 m of public supply wells on Cape Cod was significantly correlated with N detects and Σ[pharma].
“In our study of Cape Cod public supply wells (Schaider et al., 2014), we found that the extent of unsewered residential land use within 500 m of public supply wells on Cape Cod was significantly correlated with N detects and Σ[pharma].”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Schaider et al., 2014
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References 74 · Cited by 304
Research works printed but not linked: 2
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- Authors
- Schaider, L. A., Rudel, R. A., Ackerman, J. M., Dunagan, S. C., & Brody, J. G.
- Affiliations
- Silent Spring Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schaider, Laurel A.
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 468-469
- Pages
- 384-393
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1999197074
- Cited by
- 304
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 15.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Massachusetts Environmental Trust
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1H75EH000732-01)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Keywords
- pharmaceuticals, groundwater contamination, drinking water wells, septic systems, sulfamethoxazole, PFOS, phenytoin, nitrate, boron, wastewater treatment plant effluent, Cape Cod, contaminant mixtures, human health risk
- MeSH terms
- Chemistry Techniques, Analytical, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Massachusetts, Surface-Active Agents, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Groundwater, Drinking Water, Water Wells
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