Living under surveillance: Gender, psychological distress, and stop-question-and-frisk policing in New York City
Abstract
A growing body of research highlights the collateral consequences of mass incarceration, including stop-and-frisk policing tactics. Living in a neighborhood with aggressive policing may affect one's mental health, especially for men who are the primary targets of police stops. We examine whether there is an association between psychological distress and neighborhood-level aggressive policing (i.e., frisking and use of force by police) and whether that association varies by gender. The 2009-2011 New York City (NYC) Stop, Question, and Frisk Database is aggregated to the neighborhood-level (N = 34) and merged with individual data from the 2012 NYC Community Health Survey (N = 8066) via the United Hospital Fund neighborhood of respondents' residence. Weighted multilevel generalized linear models are used to assess main and gendered associations of neighborhood exposures to aggressive police stops on psychological distress (Kessler-6 items). While the neighborhood stop rate exhibits inconsistent associations with psychological distress, neighborhood-level frisk and use of force proportions are linked to higher levels of non-specific psychological distress among men, but not women. Specifically, men exhibit more non-specific psychological distress and more severe feelings of nervousness, effort, and worthlessness in aggressively surveilled neighborhoods than do women. Male residents are affected by the escalation of stop-and-frisk policing in a neighborhood. Living in a context of aggressive policing is an important risk factor for men's mental health.
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Prior research on mental health and inequality demonstrates that external social structures condition mental health above and beyond individual experiences.
“Prior research on mental health and inequality demonstrates that external social structures condition mental health above and beyond individual experiences (Sewell et al., 2016; Huyser et al., 2018; Williams, 2018).”
From The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention (2021) · cites this paper as Sewell et al., 2016
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BackgroundAn historical review of racial bias in prison-based substance abuse treatment design
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Gonzalez, S. M., & Deckard, F. M. (2022) · Social problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac043 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Executions and Police Conflicts Involving Children, Adolescents and Young Adults
Johnson, T. J., & Wright, J. L. (2021) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2020.12.012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The Association Between Abusive Policing and PTSD Symptoms Among U.S. Police Officers
DeVylder, J., Lalane, M., & Fedina, L. (2019) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/703356 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
RECENT EVIDENCE AND CONTROVERSIES IN “THE NEW POLICING”
Fagan, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.21995 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
A Matter of Time: Racialized Time and the Production of Health Disparities
Colen, C. G., Drotning, K. J., Sayer, L. C., & Link, B. G. (2023) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465231182377 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…have been amplified in recent years due to an increase in third-party policing (Desmond and Valdez 2012), expansion of stop and frisk policies (Sewell, Jefferson, and Lee 2016), and widespread sharing of interactions with law enforcement via social media platforms (Desmond, Papachristos, and…”
BackgroundEffects of racial profiling: the subjectivation of discriminatory police practices
Plümecke, T., Wilopo, C., & Naguib, T. (2023) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2022.2077124 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Harris, A., & Smith, T. (2022) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2022.8.2.02 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Why someone did not stop them? Aversive racism and the responsibility of bystanders
Murrell, A. J. (2020) · Equality Diversity and Inclusion An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-07-2020-0191 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Jackson, A. N., Butler-Barnes, S. T., Stafford, J., Robinson, H., & Allen, P. C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124330 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Tobin, C. S. T., Huỳnh, J., Farmer, H. R., Cross, R. I., Barve, A., Robinson, M. N., Leslie, E. P., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643221100789 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Simes, J. T., & Tichenor, E. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/719901 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Criminal justice institutions were not designed to be therapeutic, and they have been shown to have significant negative health effects (Schnittker and John 2007; Sewell, Jefferson, and Lee 2016; Edwards, Esposito, and Lee 2018; Jacobs and Giordano 2018).”
BackgroundSwaner, R. (2022) · Critical Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10612-022-09610-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kiang, M., & Tsai, A. (2021) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.04.018 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Brady, D., Finnigan, R., Köhler, U., & Legewie, J. (2020) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v7.a25 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Black people receive disproportionate sanctions in criminal justice (Legewie and Fagan 2019; Sewell, Jefferson, and Lee 2016; Sewell et al. 2020) and welfare programs (Schram et al. 2009), which worsen life chances (Legewie and Fagan 2019; Sewell et al. 2016; Sewell et al 2020).”
BackgroundWilson, B. L., Wolfer, T., Wooten, N. R., Pitner, R. O., Moore, S. E., & Anders, A. (2023) · The Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231191841 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“At this level, students described receiving “ The Talk ” from parents about how to safely manage encounters with the police (Sewell et al., 2016a).”
BackgroundDismantling Structural Racism by Advancing Immigrant Health.
Young, M.-E. D. T., & Crookes, D. M. (2023) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2022.307172 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Davis, B. A., Arcaya, M. C., Williams, D. R., & Krieger, N. (2023) · Health and Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2023.102990 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Carbonaro, R. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114883 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Public trust is earned: Historical discrimination, carceral violence, and the COVID ‐19 pandemic
Anderson, A., Lewis, D. F., Shafer, P. R., Anderson, J., & LaVeist, T. A. (2023) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.14187 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Scholars have shown that routine exposure to police violence is linked to medical mistrust,(46) lower utilization of important health services,(39,47) and exacerbation of other known health disparities for youth and adults.(40,42,43,48,49) Sociolegal scholars have also begun examining how legal standards are being enf…”
BackgroundRisk, race, and predictive policing: A critical race theory analysis of the strategic subject list
DaViera, A. L., Uriostegui, M., Gottlieb, A., & Onyeka, O. “. (2023) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12671 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Neighborhood Proactive Policing and Racial Inequities in Preterm Birth in New Orleans, 2018‒2019.
Jahn, J. L., Wallace, M., Theall, K., & Hardeman, R. (2023) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2022.307079 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Duxbury, S., & Andrabi, N. (2022) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac044 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sewell, A. A., Jefferson, K. A., & Lee, H.
- Affiliations
- Emory University (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sewell, Alyasah Ali
- Venue
- Social Science & Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-06
- Volume
- 159
- Pages
- 1-13
- ISSN
- 0277-9536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2336632514
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 69.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Social Science & Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Keywords
- psychological distress, gender differences, police use of force, surveillance, neighbourhood policing, men's mental health, New York City
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, New York City, Population Surveillance, Surveys and Questionnaires, Residence Characteristics, Risk Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Police, Multilevel Analysis, Sexism
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