The fractal structure of glycogen: A clever solution to optimize cell metabolism
Open accessAbstract
Fractal objects are complex structures built with a simple procedure involving very little information. This has an obvious interest for living beings, because they are splendid examples of optimization to achieve the most efficient structure for a number of goals by means of the most economic way. The lung alveolar structure, the capillary network, and the structure of several parts of higher plant organization, such as ears, spikes, umbels, etc., are supposed to be fractals, and, in fact, mathematical functions based on fractal geometry algorithms can be developed to simulate them. However, the statement that a given biological structure is fractal should imply that the iterative process of its construction has a real biological meaning, i.e., that its construction in nature is achieved by means of a single genetic, enzymatic, or biophysical mechanism successively repeated; thus, such an iterative process should not be just an abstract mathematical tool to reproduce that object. This property has not been proven at present for any biological structure, because the mechanisms that build the objects mentioned above are unknown in detail. In this work, we present results that show that the glycogen molecule could be the first known real biological fractal structure.
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Muscle glycogen degradation depends on the activation of glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzymes, which ultimately split glucose residues from the glycogen chain.
“Muscle glycogen degradation depends on the activation of glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzymes, which ultimately split glucose residues from the glycogen chain [54].”
From Regulation of Energy Substrate Metabolism in Endurance Exercise (2021) · cites this paper as [54]
The Introduction (pp. 1–2) says phosphorylase is activated through a cascade and releases glucose residues from glycogen’s external chains. It does not describe debranching enzymes as participating in degradation; the branching enzyme it discusses builds branches during synthesis. The passages also do not specifically establish the mechanism for muscle glycogen. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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BackgroundAlbrecht, T., Haebel, S., Koch, A., Krause, U., Eckermann, N., & Steup, M. (2004) · European Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.2004.04333.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Zhuo, S., Bai, M., Wang, Z., Chen, L., Li, Z., Zhu, X., Chen, J., Ye, X., Guo, C., & Chen, Y. (2024) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00074.2024 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The allosteric control mechanism of bacterial glycogen biosynthesis disclosed by cryoEM
Cifuente, J. O., Comino, N., D’Angelo, C., Marina, A., Gil‐Carton, D., Albesa-Jové, D., & Guerin, M. E. (2020) · Current Research in Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.crstbi.2020.04.005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Liu, W., Dou, C., Zhang, C., Chen, P., Zhang, S., Wang, R., Han, Q. K., Zhao, H., & Li, D. (2024) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116620 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Djoković, V., Božanić, D. K., Vodnik, V. V., Krsmanović, R. M., Trandafilović, L. V., & Dimitrijević‐Branković, S. (2011) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.899934 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Romero, J. M., & Curtino, J. A. (2003) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/s0006-291x(03)00861-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
On the evolutionary significance of the size and planarity of the proline ring
Behre, J., Voigt, R., Althöfer, I., & Schuster, S. (2012) · Die Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-012-0960-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Romero, J. M., Issoglio, F. M., Carrizo, M. E., & Curtino, J. A. (2008) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.07.114 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hao, Z.-P., Tang, B., Chen, C., He, Y.-P., & Shi, Z. (2012) · Applied Entomology and Zoology · doi:10.1007/s13355-012-0150-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“3a), as previously reported (Melendez et al. 1999; Tolmasky et al. 2001; Roach 2002).”
BackgroundStorage Polysaccharides in Prokaryotes: Glycogen, Granulose, and Starch-Like Granules
Colpaert, M. G., Chabi, M., Cenci, U., & Colleoni, C. (2020) · Microbiology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-60173-7_8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fermont, L., Szydlowski, N., & Colleoni, C. (2022) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/63392 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rousset, Y., Ebenhöh, O., & Raguin, A. (2023) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010694 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Based on the Whelan model, the nowadays widespread idea emerged that glycogen can be described as a fractal molecule [6, 33, 34].”
Schmieder, P., Nitschké, F., Steup, M., Mallow, K., & Specker, E. (2013) · Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry · doi:10.1002/mrc.3996 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
New approach to prepare fluorogenic branched dextrins for assaying glycogen debranching enzyme
Sakaguchi, M., Makino, Y., & Matsubara, H. (2020) · Glycoconjugate Journal · doi:10.1007/s10719-020-09955-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The full glycogen molecule was reported to have a spherical shape with 12 concentric tiers [3].”
BackgroundProperties and functions of the storage sites of glycogen phosphorylase
Makino, Y., Fujii, Y., & Taniguchi, M. (2015) · The Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1093/jb/mvv007 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Enzymology of Complex Alpha-Glucans
Putaux, J. (2021) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b22412 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kristijarti, A. P., Jurak, E., & van der Maarel, M. J. E. C. (2024) · Journal of Applied Phycology · doi:10.1007/s10811-024-03353-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Glycogen in eukaryotes, such as invertebrates and mammals, has evolved as the structurally optimal molecule that digestive enzymes can rapidly metabolize (Meléndez et al. 1999; Wang et al. 2020).”
Bazán, S., & Curtino, J. A. (2005) · Glycobiology · doi:10.1093/glycob/cwi093 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“(B) Scheme of the molecule of proteoglycogen taken from Meléndez et al. (1998, 1999), modified according to the present results, showing a single chain connecting c-glycogenin (glycogenin-bound maltoheptaose) with glycogen.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGlycogen Structure: an Evolutionary View
Meléndez‐Hevia, E., Meléndez, R., & Canela, E. I. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4072-0_36 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“We have recently proposed ( Melendez et al., 1999 ) that phosphorylase, slowly degrading the glycogen surface, could playa role in this function by remodelling the external surface during the biosynthesis process.”
BackgroundSelf-citationStructure and regulation of yeast glycogen synthase
Baskaran, S. (2010) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c2/1815 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Fractal dimensional analysis to reveal traffic flow dynamics as organic metabolism
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“…of the routing strategy or system saturation level, suggesting that just as fractal dimension provides insight into the metabolism of an organism (Melendez, Melendez-Hevia, and Canela 1999; Montero et al. 2018), the fractals of size and rank for traffic distribution have the potential to measure…”
Fermont, L., Szydlowski, N., & Colleoni, C. (2022) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/63392-v · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Miyagawa, D., Makino, Y., & Sato, M. (2015) · The Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1093/jb/mvv097 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Quantitative Analysis of the Subcellular Distribution of Human Skeletal Muscle Glycogen
Marchand, I. (2002) · Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1139/h02-007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Uno, R., Makino, Y., & Matsubara, H. (2024) · The Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1093/jb/mvae030 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bagato, A. Y., & Mahmoud, M. S. (2014) · Journal of Applied Sports Science · doi:10.21608/jass.2014.84816 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Analysis of structure of glycogen in rat hepatocytes using cytochemical and FRET methods
Bezborodkina, N. N., Shteĭn, G. I., Sivova, E. V., Chestnova, A. Y., & Kudryavtsev, B. N. (2011) · Cell and Tissue Biology · doi:10.1134/s1990519x11050038 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Dynamics of the Glycogen β-Particle Number in Rat Hepatocytes during Glucose Refeeding
Bezborodkina, N. N., Av, S., Vorobev, M. L., Stein, G., Okovityi, S. V., & Kudryavtsev, B. N. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23169263 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, the general plan of the glycogen molecule structure, the composition of its spatial structure, can be traced quite clearly and in the best possible way is suitable for the liver to perform its glucostatic function [7,8].”
BackgroundSmall Angle Neutron Scattering Studies of Native and Chemically Modified Phytoglycogen Nanoparticles
Simmons, J. V. (2021) · The Atrium (University of Guelph) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fractal Biology — Evolution from Molecular to Cognitive, and Psychological DimensionsPreprint
Dyakin, V. V. (2024) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/x0duh1.2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fractal Structure and Storage Dynamics of Glycogen
Ionescu, C. M. (2010) · IFAC Proceedings Volumes · doi:10.3182/20100705-3-be-2011.00057
“Figure 1 depicts schematically the structure of the glycogen molecule, similarly to a Koch tree representation (Melendez et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRegulation of carbohydrate metabolism in skeletal muscle during and after contraction
Sandström, M. (2006) · Figshare
Gil, J., Gimeno, M., Laborda, J. G., Nuviala, J., & Belanche, I. (2006)
Chestnova, A. Y., Bezborodkina, N. N., Matyukhina, N. M., & Kudryavtsev, B. N. (2015) · Cell and Tissue Biology · doi:10.1134/s1990519x15020030
“Four exter nal tiers of macroglycogen contain 94–97% of all glu cose residues, and eight internal ones that form a so called skeleton or proglycogen contain from 3 to 6% of the glucose residues in the glycogen molecule (Rybicka, 1996; Melendez et al., 1999; Shearer, Gra ham, 2002).”
BackgroundCardiac glycogen accumulation following dexamethasone is regulated by AMPK.
Puthanveetil, P., & Rodrigues, B. B. (2008) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/s1499-2671(08)24166-3
“glycogenin acts as a primer for the attachment of UDP-glucose moieties, promoting the growth of this polymer (31).”
BackgroundCONTROL DE LA SÍNTESI DE GLICOGEN EN HEPATÒCITS
Química, F. D. (2002)
Atkinson, J. M. (2015) · The Atrium (University of Guelph)
Stability, complexity and non-linear systems
Dillon, P. F. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139035002.012
- Authors
- Meléndez, R., Meléndez-Hevia, E., & Canela, E. I.
- Affiliations
- Universitat de Barcelona (ES)
- ORCID
- Canela, Enric I.
- Venue
- Biophysical Journal
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-09
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1327-1332
- ISSN
- 0006-3495 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC1300422
- OpenAlex
- W2051584393
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Biophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (submittedVersion)
- Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Consejería de Educación, Universidades y Sostenibilidad, Gobierno de Canarias
- Ministerio de Educación y Cultura
- Comissió Interdepartamental de Recerca i Innovació Tecnològica
- Institut Nacional d'Educacio Fisica de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rheumatology › Glycogen Storage Diseases and Myoclonus
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Statistical and Nonlinear Physics › Advanced Mathematical Theories and Applications
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Fractal and DNA sequence analysis
- Keywords
- glycogen, fractal structure, fractal geometry, biological optimization, cellular metabolism, glycogen structure
- MeSH terms
- Carbohydrate Conformation, Cells, Glucosyltransferases, Glycogen, Glycoproteins, Models, Biological, Models, Molecular, Fractals
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