Words in a sea of sounds: the output of infant statistical learning

Finding structure in time

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Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants

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Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life

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Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age

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A precursor of language acquisition in young infants

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Statistical learning of tone sequences by human infants and adults

Saffran, J. R., Johnson, E. K., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1999) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00075-4 · Cited by 1,429

Rule Learning by Seven-Month-Old Infants

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Computation of conditional probability statistics by 8-month-old infants

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Advances in infancy research

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Infants′ Detection of the Sound Patterns of Words in Fluent Speech

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A computational model of word segmentation from continuous speech using transitional probabilities of atomic acoustic events

Räsänen, O. J. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.04.001 · Cited by 38

Units of English spelling‐to‐sound mapping: a rational approach to reading instruction

Vousden, J. I. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1371 · Cited by 36

Mapping sound to meaning: Connections between learning about sounds and learning about words

Saffran, J. R., & Estes, K. G. (2006) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80003-0 · Cited by 39

Computational models in the debate over language learnability

Kaplan, F., Oudeyer, P., & Bergen, B. K. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.544 · Cited by 35

Remarks on the Individual Basis for Linguistic Structures

Bever, T. G. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0021 · Cited by 34

Acquiring Phonology

Smith, N. V. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511770692 · Cited by 33

The syllabic bridge: the first step in learning spelling-to-sound correspondences*

Doignon‐Camus, N., & Zagar, D. (2013) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000913000305 · Cited by 33

Little Words, Big Impact: Determiners Begin to Bootstrap Reference by 12 Months

Kedar, Y., Casasola, M., Lust, B., & Parmet, Y. (2017) · Language Learning and Development · doi:10.1080/15475441.2017.1283229 · Cited by 32

Learning through Language

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The Emergence of Richly Organized Semantic Knowledge from Simple Statistics: A Synthetic Review

Unger, L., & Fisher, A. V. (2021) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2021.100949 · Cited by 31

chapter 3 The Nature of Merge Consequences for Language, Mind, and Biology

Boeckx, C. A. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0004 · Cited by 30

Decoding of speech information using EEG in children with dyslexia: Less accurate low-frequency representations of speech, not “Noisy” representations

Keshavarzi, M., Mandke, K. N., Macfarlane, A., Parvez, L., Gabrielczyk, F. C., Wilson, A. M., Flanagan, S. A., & Goswami, U. (2022) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2022.105198 · Cited by 29

The effects of distributional learning on rats' sensitivity to phonetic information.

Pons, F. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.32.1.97 · Cited by 28

Perceptual tests of an algorithm for musical key-finding.

Schmuckler, M. A., & Tomovski, R. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.1124 · Cited by 31

Statistically coherent labels facilitate categorization in 8-month-olds

Erickson, L. C., Thiessen, E. D., & Graf Estes, K. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.01.002 · Cited by 27

Statistical learning is constrained to less abstract patterns in complex sensory input (but not the least)

Emberson, L. L., & Rubinstein, D. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.04.010 · Cited by 26

The relation between language and cognition in 3- to 9-year-olds: The acquisition of grammatical gender in French

Seigneuric, A., Zagar, D., Meunier, F., & Spinelli, E. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.003 · Cited by 25

Impaired Orthographic Processing in Chinese Dyslexic Children: Evidence From the Lexicality Effect on N400

Tzeng, Y.-L., Hsu, C.-H., Lin, W.-H., & Lee, C. (2017) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1353996 · Cited by 24

Hierarchical amplitude modulation structures and rhythm patterns: Comparing Western musical genres, song, and nature sounds to Babytalk

Daikoku, T., & Goswami, U. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275631 · Cited by 23

Functional connectivity during language processing in 3‐month‐old infants at familial risk for autism spectrum disorder

Tran, X. A., McDonald, N. M., Dickinson, A. H., Scheffler, A., Frohlich, J., Marin, A., Liu, C. K., Nosco, E., Şentürk, D., Dapretto, M., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15005 · Cited by 22

Cultural and linguistic influence on brain organization for language and possible consequences for dyslexia: A review

Johansson, B. B. (2006) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-006-0002-6 · Cited by 24

Cognition

Willingham, D. T., & Riener, C. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271988 · Cited by 22

Surface generalizations

Goldberg, A. E. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268511.003.0002 · Cited by 25

Entropy as an Indicator of Context Boundaries: An Experiment Using a Web Search Engine

Tanaka‐Ishii, K. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11562214_9 · Cited by 22

Visual statistical learning based on the perceptual and semantic information of objects.

Otsuka, S., Nishiyama, M., Nakahara, F., & Kawaguchi, J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028645 · Cited by 22

Where now with Optimality Theory?

van de Weijer, J. (2019) · Acta Linguistica Academica · doi:10.1556/2062.2019.66.1.5 · Cited by 21

Processing Verb Meanings and the Declarative/Procedural Model: A Developmental Study

Stefaniak, N., Baltazart, V., & Declercq, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.714523 · Cited by 21

Learning Orthographic Structure With Sequential Generative Neural Networks

Testolin, A., Stoianov, I. P., Sperduti, A., & Zorzi, M. (2015) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12258 · Cited by 21

chapter 11 Movement and Concepts of Locality

Rizzi, L. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0013 · Cited by 20

chapter 14 Round Table: Language Universals: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Boeckx, C. A., Fodor, J. D., Glertman, L., & Rizzi, L. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0016 · Cited by 22

Dynamic Modeling for Development and Education: From Concepts to Numbers

van Geert, P. V. (2014) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12046 · Cited by 23

Infants Generalize Representations of Statistically Segmented Words

Estes, K. G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00447 · Cited by 20

Educational neuroscience: neural structure-mapping and the promise of oscillations

Goswami, U. (2016) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.05.011 · Cited by 21

Learning the Language for School Literacy

Uccelli, P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.010 · Cited by 20

Input, Interaction, and Learning in Early Language Development

Lieven, E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.003 · Cited by 19

Multisensory perception constrains the formation of object categories: a review of evidence from sensory-driven and predictive processes on categorical decisions

Newell, F. N., McKenna, E., Seveso, M. A., Devine, I., Alahmad, F., Hirst, R. J., & O’Dowd, A. (2023) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2022.0342 · Cited by 21

Learning the association between a context and a target location in infancy

Bertels, J., Anton, E. S., Gebuis, T., & Destrebecqz, A. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12397 · Cited by 17

Temporal bisection is influenced by ensemble statistics of the stimulus set

Zhu, X., Baykan, C., Müller, H. J., & Shi, Z. (2020) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-020-02202-z · Cited by 16

What develops in language development?

Gerken, L. (2005) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(05)80007-2 · Cited by 15

Learning through Language

Grøver, V., Uccelli, P., Rowe, M. L., & Lieven, E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.002 · Cited by 18

Toward Realizing the Promise of Educational Neuroscience: Improving Experimental Design in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Studies

Goswami, U. (2020) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-042320-100040 · Cited by 16

Modeling Infant Word Segmentation

Lignos, C. (2011) · Cited by 15

Effect of Early Bilingualism on Metalinguistic Development and Language Processing: Evidence from Chinese-Speaking Bilingual Children

Kuo, L., & Kim, T. (2013) · Literacy studies · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7380-6_9 · Cited by 15

Language and Recursion

Lowenthal, F., & Lefebvre, L. (2010) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.3527161 · Cited by 15

The role of metacognition in recognition of the content of statistical learning

Ordin, M., & Polyanskaya, L. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01800-0 · Cited by 16

Learning through language: towards an educationally informed theory of language learning

Povenmire, J. (2020) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2020.1718596 · Cited by 16

Effects of Seating Arrangement on Students' Interaction in Group Reflective Practice

Nehyba, J., Juhaňák, L., & Cigán, J. (2021) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2021.1954865 · Cited by 22

ACQUIRING AUDITORY AND PHONETIC CATEGORIES**Part of this research was carried out with financial support from the Dutch Scientific Research Council. We further thank Keith Kluender, University of Wisconsin, Madison, for financial and other assistance with the speech experiments.

Goudbeek, M. B., Smits, R., Cutler, A., & Swingley, D. (2005) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008044612-7/50077-9 · Cited by 13

Statistical and Chunking Processes in Adults' Visual Sequence Learning.

Slone, L. K., & Johnson, S. P. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 13

Computational language acquisition by statistical bottom-up processing

Räsänen, O. J., Laine, U. K., & Altosaar, T. (2008) · Interspeech (USB) · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2008-521 · Cited by 14

Statistically based chunking of nonadjacent dependencies.

Isbilen, E. S., Frost, R. L. A., Padraic Monaghan, B., & Christiansen, M. H. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001207 · Cited by 12

Five Additional Evidence-Based Principles to Facilitate Grammar Development for Children With Developmental Language Disorder

Finestack, L. H., Ancel, E., Lee, H., Kuchler, K., & Kornelis, M. (2023) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2023_ajslp-23-00049 · Cited by 18

The time course and characteristics of procedural learning in schizophrenia patients and healthy individuals

Adini, Y., Bonneh, Y. S., Komm, S., Deutsch, L., & Israeli, D. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00475 · Cited by 12

Human Sociobiology and Group Selection Theory

Alcock, J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-420190-3.00023-5 · Cited by 11

Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Dominating Groundwater Mineralization and Hydrochemical Evolution in Gao, Northern Mali

Traore, A., Mao, X., Traore, A., Yakubu, Y., & Sidibé, A. M. (2024) · Journal of Earth Science · doi:10.1007/s12583-022-1689-y · Cited by 11

Complex lexical items

Mos, M. (2010) · Tilburg University Research Portal · Cited by 11

Probabilistic Perception, Empathy, and Dynamic Homeostasis: Insights in Autism Spectrum Disorders and Conduct Disorders

Guilé, J. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2014.00004 · Cited by 11

Syntax Acquisition: An Evaluation Measure After All?

Fodor, J. D. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0020 · Cited by 11

Executive function skills account for a bilingual advantage in English novel word learning among low-income preschoolers

Huang, R., Baker, E. R., & Schneider, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105714 · Cited by 10

The four tones of Mandarin Chinese

van de Weijer, J., & Sloos, M. (2014) · Linguistics in the Netherlands · doi:10.1075/avt.31.13wei · Cited by 10

Contextual bootstrapping for grammar learning

Feldman, J. A., & Mok, E. H. (2008) · Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society · Cited by 10

Spracherwerb und statistisches Lernen

Breitenstein, C., & Knecht, S. (2003) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-002-1466-1 · Cited by 10

Morphological segmentations of Non-Māori Speaking New Zealanders match proficient speakers

Panther, F. A., Mattingley, W., Hay, J. B., Todd, S., King, J., & Keegan, P. J. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000329 · Cited by 12

Early developing syntactic knowledge influences sequential statistical learning in infancy

Thiessen, E. D., Onnis, L., Hong, S., & Lee, K. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2018.04.009 · Cited by 9

Verb-patient co-occurrences in Internet texts and verb meaning in memory

Declercq, C., & le Ny, J. (2008) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2007.06.003 · Cited by 11

What Is Statistical Learning, and What Statistical Learning Is Not

Saffran, J. R. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331059.003.0009 · Cited by 9

Perceptual Development and Statistical Learning

Thiessen, E. D., & Erickson, L. C. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118346136.ch18 · Cited by 9

Statistical learning in spelling and reading

Rebecca Treiman, A., & Brett Kessler, A. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2025.05.002 · Cited by 10

Stimulus variation-based training enhances artificial grammar learning

Schiff, R., Ashkenazi, P., Kahta, S., & Sasson, A. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103252 · Cited by 8

Prior knowledge bootstraps cross-situational learning

Klein, K. A., Yu, C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (2008) · Cited by 8

The Role of Culture and Meaning in Rational Choice

Gifford, A. (2005) · Journal of Bioeconomics · doi:10.1007/s10818-005-0495-9 · Cited by 8

Young Monolingual and Bilingual Children’s Exposure to Academic Language as Related to Language Development and School Achievement

Leseman, P. P. M., Henrichs, L. F., Blom, E., & Verhagen, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.019 · Cited by 8

Learning Linguistic Patterns*

Goldberg, A. E. (2006) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(06)47002-x · Cited by 8

The origin of OT constraints

van de Weijer, J. (2014) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2014.01.007 · Cited by 8

Concepts and Categories

Willingham, D. T., & Riener, C. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271988.010 · Cited by 8

Vocabulary Learning in Bilingual First‐Language Acquisition and Late Second‐Language Learning

de Groot, A. M. B. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118432501.ch23 · Cited by 8

The association between statistical learning and language development during childhood: A scoping review

de Abreu, R. M. D. R. M., Postarnak, S., Vulchanov, V., Baggio, G., & Vulchanova, M. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18693 · Cited by 7

Statistical Learning Among Preschoolers With and Without Developmental Language Disorder: Examining Effects of Language Status, Age, and Prior Learning

Kapa, L. L., & Mettler, H. M. (2024) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2024_jslhr-23-00602 · Cited by 7

Statistical word segmentation: Anchoring learning across contexts

Antovich, D., & Estes, K. G. (2022) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12525 · Cited by 8

Flexibility in Statistical Word Segmentation: Finding Words in Foreign Speech

Estes, K. G., Gluck, S., & Bastos, C. (2015) · Language Learning and Development · doi:10.1080/15475441.2014.926730 · Cited by 6

Emergent phonological constraints

van de Weijer, J. (2017) · Acta Linguistica Academica · doi:10.1556/2062.2017.64.1.5 · Cited by 6

Language Abstraction: Consolidation of Language Structure During Sleep

Clair, M. S., & Padraic Monaghan, B. (2008) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 6

Associationism and Connectionism

Williams, J. N. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/01585-6 · Cited by 6

Theory- and Evidence-Based Language Learning and Teaching for Young Children

Kim, Y. G., & Yun, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.007 · Cited by 6

Toddlers’ Ability to Leverage Statistical Information to Support Word Learning

Ellis, E. M., Arielle Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L., & Evans, J. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.600694 · Cited by 5

Usage-based Grammar Induction from Minimal Cognitive Principles

Jon-And, A., & Michaud, J. (2024) · Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/coli_a_00528 · Cited by 6

Rationality and intertemporal choice

Gifford, A. (2009) · Journal of Bioeconomics · doi:10.1007/s10818-009-9068-7 · Cited by 5

Mechanisms of Statistical Learning in Infancy

Johnson, S. P. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35594-4_2 · Cited by 5

chapter 4 The Foundational Abstractions

Gallistel, C. R. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199544660.003.0005 · Cited by 6

Cross-Linguistic Relations among Bilingual and Biliterate Learners

Proctor, C. P., & Zhang‐Wu, Q. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316718537.020 · Cited by 7

Cognição e aprendizagem de L2: o que nos diz a pesquisa nos paradigmas simbólico e conexionista

Mota, M. B., & Zimmer, M. C. (2005) · Revista Brasileira de Lingüística Aplicada · doi:10.1590/s1984-63982005000200008 · Cited by 6

Implicit learning of non-adjacent dependencies

Onnis, L., Destrebecqz, A., Christiansen, M. H., Chater, N., & Axel Cleeremans, B. (2015) · Studies in bilingualism · doi:10.1075/sibil.48.10onn · Cited by 5

Word segmentation in German-learning infants and German-speaking adults

Marimon, M. (2019) · publish.UP (University of Potsdam) · doi:10.25932/publishup-43740 · Cited by 5

Prelingual infants discover statistical word patterns at similar rates as adults: evidence from neural entrainmentPreprint

Choi, D., Batterink, L. J., Black, A. K., Paller, K. A., & Werker, J. F. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fuqd2 · Cited by 5

Chunk-based Incremental Processing and Learning: An integrated theory of word discovery, implicit statistical learning, and speed of lexical processingPreprint

Jessop, A., Pine, J. M., & Gobet, F. R. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dukpt · Cited by 5

The Reciprocal Relation Between Vocabulary Knowledge and Compound Structure Awareness and Their Contributions to Reading Comprehension in Chinese Children: A Longitudinal Study From Grades 3 to 6

Cheng, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, W., & Jia, K. (2025) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.606 · Cited by 4

Aspectos del desarrollo léxico en el retraso mental1

Rondal, J. A. (2002) · Revista de Logopedia Foniatría y Audiología · doi:10.1016/s0214-4603(02)76218-9 · Cited by 4

The proto-lexicon

Junge, C. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315730974-2 · Cited by 4

Underspecification in toddlers’ and adults’ lexical representations

Ren, J., Priva, U. C., & Morgan, J. L. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.003 · Cited by 4

Analysis of Two-Piano Teaching Assistant Training Based on Neural Network Model Sound Sequence Recognition

Dai, L. (2022) · Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience · doi:10.1155/2022/5768291 · Cited by 4

Isolated words enhance statistical language learning in infancy

Lew‐Williams, C., Pelucchi, B., & Saffran, J. R. (2011) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01079.x · Cited by 115

Statistical learning of tone sequences by human infants and adults

Saffran, J. R., Johnson, E. K., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1999) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00075-4 · Cited by 1,429

Infants Generalize Representations of Statistically Segmented Words

Estes, K. G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00447 · Cited by 20

Statistical Cues in Language Acquisition: Word Segmentation by Infants

Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. Ν., & Newport, E. L. (1996) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 9

Listening through voices: Infant statistical word segmentation across multiple speakers.

Estes, K. G., & Lew‐Williams, C. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039725 · Cited by 62