The DOI matches its Crossref record; 155 of the 159 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 185 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The common cold
Open accessAbstract
Summary Despite great advances in medicine, the common cold continues to be a great burden on society in terms of human suffering and economic losses. Of the several viruses that cause the disease, the role of rhinoviruses is most prominent. About a quarter of all colds are still without proven cause, and the recent discovery of human metapneumovirus suggests that other viruses could remain undiscovered. Research into the inflammatory mechanisms of the common cold has elucidated the complexity of the virus-host relation. Increasing evidence is also available for the central role of viruses in predisposing to complications. New antivirals for the treatment of colds are being developed, but optimum use of these agents would require rapid detection of the specific virus causing the infection. Although vaccines against many respiratory viruses could also become available, the ultimate prevention of the common cold seems to remain a distant aim.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The common cold is a heterogeneous, usually self-limited viral upper respiratory illness caused predominantly by rhinoviruses, with substantial economic and clinical burden. This 2003 Lancet seminar reviews its virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, emphasizing that about 20–30% of colds still lack a proven viral cause and that universal treatment or prevention remains distant.
Key findings
- Rhinoviruses are the most common cause across age groups: they account for about 30–50% of all respiratory illnesses yearly and up to 80% of upper respiratory infections during the autumn peak; more than 100 serotypes exist.
- About 20–30% of colds remain without a proven viral cause, and two or more viruses are found simultaneously in about 5% of cold patients; human metapneumovirus was recently discovered and may indicate other undiscovered respiratory viruses.
- Incidence is inversely proportional to age: children average 6–8 colds per year and adults 2–4; mean cold duration is 7–10 days. Acute otitis media occurs in about 20% of children with viral upper respiratory infections, and sinusitis is estimated as a complication in 0·5–2% of colds.
- No universal effective treatment exists. Influenza antivirals zanamivir and oseltamivir reduce illness duration by 1–2 days when started within 48 h; pleconaril started within 24–36 h reduces duration by 1–1·5 days. Prospects for a rhinovirus vaccine seem poor because of serotype diversity.
Methods
- Narrative review/seminar; no primary data collection or new patient sample.
- Data were identified by computer-aided searches of PubMed and the Cochrane Library, plus journal reference lists, standard textbooks, existing knowledge, and new data from international scientific meetings.
- Reports were selected for substantial contribution to current knowledge; the main analysis is a narrative synthesis by topic, with no formal meta-analysis or quantitative pooling.
Limitations
- The paper does not include a formal limitations section; it states that about 20–30% of colds lack a proven viral cause, that PCR is still too laborious for everyday clinical practice, and that data are scarce on some topics (e.g., coronavirus role, optimum sampling methods, zinc efficacy).
- Evident: as a narrative review, report selection was not systematic (“selected reports that… have contributed substantially”), and no quantitative synthesis is performed.
- Evident: the review is time-bound to literature available by 2003, as indicated by its “Future considerations” section and reliance on then-current diagnostic and antiviral developments.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
112 Not checked yet · 11 Own interpretation · 2 Partly supported · 1 Supported so far · 1 No basis given · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“However, rhinoviruses have been consistently found to be the most common cause in all age groups, irrespective of the viral detection techniques used (panel ).8, 9, 10, 11, 12”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Arruda, 1997, Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn, J Clin Microbiol source
- Partly supportedcites [9] Mäkelä, 1998, Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold, J Clin Microbiol sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion says rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold, and the Results report them in 105 of 200 patients. But this study examined young adults, not all age groups. It used several detection methods but does not establish that the finding holds irrespective of detection technique. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked yetcites [10] Monto, 1987, Rhinovirus infections in Tecumseh, Michigan: frequency of illness and numbers of serotypes, J Infect Dis source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These findings imply that most sinus abnormalities observed during the common cold are not evidence of a bacterial complication, but are instead part of the normal course of illness.”
§ The common cold > Pathogenesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [56] Gwaltney, 1994, Computed tomographic study of the common cold, N Engl J Med source
- Supportedcites [57] Puhakka, 1998, Sinusitis in the common cold, J Allergy Clin Immunol source
The Discussion describes sinusitis during the common cold as frequent and self-limited, and recommends calling it viral sinusitis. It reports no signs suggestive of bacterial sinusitis and says all 71 patients with sinusitis recovered without antibiotics. Page numbers are not provided for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In the 1980s, much hope was laid on the use of interferon, but disappointingly it provided no benefit in the treatment of naturally occurring colds or experimental rhinovirus infections.123, 124”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [123] Hayden, 1984, Intranasal interferon-alpha 2 treatment of experimental rhinoviral colds, J Infect Dis source
- Partly supportedcites [124] Hayden, 1988, Intranasal recombinant alfa-2b interferon treatment of naturally occurring common colds, Antimicrob Agents Chemother sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports no symptom benefit from interferon nasal spray for naturally occurring colds. But it also reports that, in earlier experimental rhinovirus infections, interferon given as nasal drops reduced peak nasal symptoms; the blanket claim of no benefit in experimental infections is therefore not supported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The relative proportions of different viruses in the cause of the common cold vary dependent on several factors, such as age, season, and viral sampling and detection methods.”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Arruda, 1997, Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Mäkelä, 1998, Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Monto, 1987, Rhinovirus infections in Tecumseh, Michigan: frequency of illness and numbers of serotypes, J Infect Dis source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Improvements in viral detection techniques during the past two decades, including various viral antigen detection methods and particularly the advent of PCR-based assays, have substantially increased the rates of viral detection in clinical specimens.8, 9”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“but during the autumn peak season these viruses can cause up to 80% of all upper respiratory infections.8”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Arruda, 1997, Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn, J Clin Microbiol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“because during that era the techniques of viral detection were limited to virus isolation, the viral cause could be proven in only about 25% of patients with respiratory infections.7”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Monto, 1994, Studies of the community and family: acute respiratory illness and infection, Epidemiol Rev source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Two or more viruses are found simultaneously in about 5% of patients with colds.18”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Drews, 1997, Dual respiratory virus infections, Clin Infect Dis source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Women who work outside the home have fewer infections that those who do not, which might be explained by greater exposure to children in those who stay at home.6”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] Monto, 1993, Acute respiratory illness in the community: frequency of illness and the agents involved, Epidemiol Infect source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of the central role of rhinoviruses in the cause of the common cold, the epidemiology of this condition largely parallels that of rhinoviruses.”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 16
- It may state two separate claims as one. 38
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in some patients the viral infection spreads to adjacent organs, resulting in different clinical manifestations, and, occasionally, colds predispose to bacterial complications.”
§ The common cold > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite the usually benign nature of the illness, the common cold is an enormous economic burden on society in terms of visits to doctors and other health-care providers, treatments, and absences from work, school, or day care.”
§ The common cold > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Gonzales, 2001, Excessive antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in the United States, Clin Infect Dis source
- Not checked yetcites [3] Adams, 1999, Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, Vital Health Stat
plaindirectn = 25- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Yearly, rhinoviruses account for about 30–50% of all respiratory illnesses,6, 9”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Every year, in the USA, about 25 million people visit their family doctors with uncomplicated upper respiratory infections,2”
§ The common cold > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Gonzales, 2001, Excessive antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in the United States, Clin Infect Dis source
plainn = 25- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the common cold is actually a heterogeneous group of diseases caused by numerous viruses that belong to several different families.”
§ The common cold > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“the common cold syndrome results in about 20 million days of absence from work and 22 million days of absence from school.3”
§ The common cold > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Adams, 1999, Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, Vital Health Stat
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In most temperate countries, RSV usually causes outbreaks around the turn of the year,31 but other patterns have also been documented.32”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Monto, 1971, The Tecumseh study of respiratory illness, 2: patterns of occurrence of infection with respiratory pathogens, 1965–1969, Am J Epidemiol source
- Not checked yetcites [32] Waris, 1991, Pattern of respiratory syncytial virus epidemics in Finland: two-year cycles with alternating prevalence of groups A and B, J Infect Dis source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mild instances of streptococcal pharyngitis are clinically indistinguishable from viral pharyngitis and can be misclassified as colds.”
§ The common cold > Cause
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“By age 2 years, rhinovirus infection had been documented by virus culture or PCR in 79% of the children, and 91% had antibodies against rhinoviruses.”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Blomqvist, 2002, Virological and serological analysis of rhinovirus infections during the first two years of life in a cohort of children, J Med Virol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although rhinoviruses can be detected throughout the year, the incidence of rhinovirus infections peaks during autumn, with a subsequent smaller outbreak in the spring.28, 29”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“More than 100 different serotypes of rhinoviruses have been identified, the relative prevalences of which seem to vary between different geographical areas and also over the course of time.10”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Monto, 1987, Rhinovirus infections in Tecumseh, Michigan: frequency of illness and numbers of serotypes, J Infect Dis source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Finally, some reports27 indicate that heavy physical training increases the risk of respiratory infections, whereas moderate physical activity could decrease risk.”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Nieman, 1994, Exercise, upper respiratory tract infection, and the immune system, Med Sci Sports Exerc source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“On average, the youngest children have 6–8 and adults 2–4 colds per year.5, 7”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During the first years of life, boys seem to have more respiratory infections than girls, but this difference is reversed later in life.5”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Monto, 1974, Acute respiratory illness in an American community: the Tecumseh study, JAMA source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Positive findings by PCR, for instance, do not require the presence of live viruses, and viral genomic materials can be detected in patients long after the subsidence of clinical symptoms.19, 20”
§ The common cold > Cause
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Johnston, 1993, Use of polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of picornavirus infection in subjects with and without respiratory symptoms, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Nokso-Koivisto, 2002, Human picornavirus and coronavirus RNA in nasopharynx of children without concurrent respiratory symptoms, J Med Virol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the clinical presentation of influenza ranges from an asymptomatic infection to severe illness and it therefore overlaps with the common cold.”
§ The common cold > Cause
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this figure is likely an underestimate, and calculations based on PCR data might yield a substantially higher rate.”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The average annual rate of rhinovirus infection is estimated at about 0·8 per person.28”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Gwaltney, 1966, Rhinovirus infections in an industrial population, 1:the occurrence of illness, N Engl J Med source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Some genetic factors might also affect an individual's susceptibility to respiratory infections, but any potential mechanisms remain largely unidentified.24, 25”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] Casselbrant, 1999, The heritability of otitis media: a twin and triplet study, JAMA source
- Not checked yetcites [25] Pitkäranta, 1999, Lowered yields of virus-induced interferon production in leukocyte cultures and risk of recurrent respiratory infections in children, J Clin Virol source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Day-care attendance is another major risk factor for respiratory illnesses in children, and the frequency of colds increases with the number of children in the group.21, 22, 23”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Wald, 1988, Frequency and severity of infections in day care, J Pediatr source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Alho, 1990, Risk factors for recurrent acute otitis media and respiratory infection in infancy, Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol source
- Not checked yetcites [23] Ball, 2002, Influence of attendance at day care on the common cold from birth through 13 years of age, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Influenza epidemics also typically occur in the winter in the northern hemisphere, often overlapping with RSV.31, 33”
§ The common cold > Epidemiology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Monto, 1971, The Tecumseh study of respiratory illness, 2: patterns of occurrence of infection with respiratory pathogens, 1965–1969, Am J Epidemiol source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Izurieta, 2000, Influenza and the rates of hospitalization for respiratory disease among infants and young children, N Engl J Med source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Whereas influenza viruses and adenoviruses cause extensive damage to the respiratory epithelium,45, 46 no histopathological changes are observed in nasal biopsy specimens from individuals infected with rhinoviruses.37”
§ The common cold > Pathogenesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Winther, 1986, Sites of rhinovirus recovery after point inoculation of the upper airway, JAMA source
- Not checked yetcites [45] Treanor, 2000, Influenza virus
- Not checked yetcites [46] Cherry, 1998, Adenoviruses
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“whereas the incubation period of influenza ranges from 1 to 7 days.34”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Nicholson, 1998, Human influenza
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In children, the most common bacterial complication is acute otitis media, which occurs in about 20% of children with viral upper respiratory infections.74, 75”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] Heikkinen, 1995, Short-term use of amoxicillin-clavulanate during upper respiratory tract infection for prevention of acute otitis media, J Pediatr source
- Not checked yetcites [75] Tapiainen, 2002, Xylitol administered only during respiratory infections failed to prevent acute otitis media, Pediatrics source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The purulence of the nasal discharge is not associated with changes in the nasopharyngeal bacterial flora71 and is not considered to indicate a simultaneous bacterial infection of the nasal mucosa.”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [71] Winther, 1984, Study of bacteria in the nasal cavity and nasopharynx during naturally acquired common colds, Acta Otolaryngol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The mean duration of the common cold is 7–10 days, but in a proportion of patients some symptoms can still be present after 3 weeks.8, 68, 69”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Arruda, 1997, Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [68] Gwaltney, 1967, Rhinovirus infections in an industrial population, 2: characteristics of illness and antibody response, JAMA source
- Not checked yetcites [69] Puhakka, 1998, The common cold: effects of intranasal fluticasone propionate treatment, J Allergy Clin Immunol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The shedding of rhinoviruses peaks on the second day after intranasal inoculation and decreases rapidly thereafter, but small amounts of viruses can be discovered in nasal secretions for up to 3 weeks after infection.37, 44”
§ The common cold > Pathogenesis
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“as indicated by the fact that the primary site of replication of influenza viruses is in the tracheobronchial epithelium,34 whereas rhinovirus replication starts predominantly in the nasopharynx.37”
§ The common cold > Pathogenesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Nicholson, 1998, Human influenza
- Not checked yetcites [37] Winther, 1986, Sites of rhinovirus recovery after point inoculation of the upper airway, JAMA source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In adults and children, viral infection of the upper respiratory tract often causes dysfunction of the Eustachian tube, which is considered the most important factor in the pathogenesis of acute otitis media.61”
§ The common cold > Pathogenesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Heikkinen, 2000, The role of respiratory viruses in otitis media, Vaccine source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Fever is an infrequent finding during rhinovirus infections in adults, but it is fairly common in children with upper respiratory infections of any cause72, 73”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72] Putto, 1986, Fever in respiratory virus infections, Am J Dis Child
- Not checked yetcites [73] Dick, 1998, Rhinoviruses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, PCR-based techniques are still too laborious for use in everyday clinical practice, and the extreme sensitivity of PCR can pose problems for the interpretation of results.19, 20”
§ The common cold > Diagnosis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Johnston, 1993, Use of polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of picornavirus infection in subjects with and without respiratory symptoms, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Nokso-Koivisto, 2002, Human picornavirus and coronavirus RNA in nasopharynx of children without concurrent respiratory symptoms, J Med Virol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently developed rapid antigen detection kits for influenza and RSV can provide results within 15–30 min,98, 99 but there are concerns about the real-life sensitivity and specificity of these tests.100”
§ The common cold > Diagnosis
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“PCR has proved valuable in diagnosis of viral infections in general, and especially rhinovirus infections, for which other methods have been suboptimum.8, 9, 101, 102”
§ The common cold > Diagnosis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Arruda, 1997, Frequency and natural history of rhinovirus infections in adults during autumn, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Mäkelä, 1998, Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold, J Clin Microbiol source
- Not checked yetcites [101] Hyypiä, 1998, Molecular diagnosis of human rhinovirus infections: comparison with virus isolation, J Clin Microbiol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Nasopharyngeal aspirates and nasal wash specimens are usually considered the specimens of choice for the detection of respiratory viruses, but nasal and throat swabs are also often used because of their greater feasibility.103, 104, 105, 106”
§ The common cold > Diagnosis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [103] McIntosh, 1993, Report of a workshop on respiratory viral infections: epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, Clin Infect Dis source
- Not checked yetcites [104] Hall, 1975, Clinically useful method for the isolation of respiratory syncytial virus, J Infect Dis source
- Not checked yetcites [105] Covalciuc, 1999, Comparison of four clinical specimen types for detection of influenza A and B viruses by optical immunoassay (FLU OIA test) and cell culture methods, J Clin Microbiol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“although results of surveillance studies13 indicate that two thirds of elderly patients with colds can be expected to develop lower respiratory illness.”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] Larson, 1980, Isolation of rhinoviruses and coronaviruses from 38 colds in adults, J Med Virol source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although the frequencies of colds are similar in patients with and without COPD, the use of medical resources, including hospital admissions and visits to emergency clinics, during viral respiratory illnesses is substantially increased in patients with COPD.89”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Greenberg, 2000, Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pneumonia associated with a viral upper respiratory infection is often a true bacterial complication of the predisposing viral illness, but it can also be a pure extension of the viral illness to the pulmonary level.”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the common cold is caused by a multitude of different virus types with varying pathogenetic mechanisms, that an effective universal treatment for this disorder has not been developed is understandable.”
§ The common cold > Treatment
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study86 of adult patients with asthma, symptoms of the common cold were reported in 80% of episodes of wheezing or dyspnoea, and rhinoviruses accounted for about 60% of those asthma exacerbations for which the viral cause could be identified.”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] Nicholson, 1993, Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults, BMJ source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First-generation (but not second-generation) antihistamines reduce sneezing and rhinorrhoea, probably because of their anticholinergic rather than antihistamine effects.111”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [111] Gwaltney, 1997, Efficacy of brompheniramine maleate for the treatment of rhinovirus colds, Clin Infect Dis source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sinusitis has been estimated to occur as a complication in 0·5–2% of colds,12”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Gwaltney, 2000, The common cold
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In immunocompromised patients, RSV is usually the most common cause of severe viral respiratory illness, but rhinovirus infections have also been associated with severe and even fatal lower respiratory tract disease.90”
§ The common cold > Clinical manifestations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [90] Ghosh, 1999, Rhinovirus infections in myelosuppressed adult blood and marrow transplant recipients, Clin Infect Dis source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Findings of clinical trials showed that this approach could reduce the severity of experimental rhinovirus infections, but the effect was modest.125”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [125] Turner, 1999, Efficacy of tremacamra, a soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1, for experimental rhinovirus infection: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduce fever and soreness of the throat, and might also have some beneficial effect on cough.116”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] Sperber, 1992, Effects of naproxen on experimental rhinovirus colds: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial, Ann Intern Med source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Cough medications, both antitussives and mucolytic agents, are frequently used, although their efficacy has been poorly shown.115”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [115] Schroeder, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The new influenza-specific antivirals, zanamivir and oseltamivir, have fewer side-effects and are effective against both influenza A and B viruses.”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [119] 1998, Randomised trial of efficacy and safety of inhaled zanamivir in treatment of influenza A and B virus infections, Lancet source
- Not checked yetcites [120] Nicholson, 2000, Efficacy and safety of oseltamivir in treatment of acute influenza: a randomised controlled trial, Lancet source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The usability of amantadine and rimantadine is limited by their side-effects, their inefficacy against influenza B viruses, and the rapid development of resistant viral strains during treatment.118”
§ The common cold > Treatment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [118] Hayden, 1989, Emergence and apparent transmission of rimantadine-resistant influenza A virus in families, N Engl J Med source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The common cold is usually a self-limited illness confined to the upper respiratory tract.
“The common cold is usually a self-limited illness confined to the upper respiratory tract.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Antibiotics are not effective against viruses.
“Although antibiotics are not effective against viruses, they are widely used in the treatment of uncomplicated viral upper respiratory infections.2, 109”
The paper relies on this without support.
The occurrence of the common cold shows clear seasonality.
“The occurrence of the common cold shows clear seasonality.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Transmission of viruses that cause upper respiratory infections can occur by hand contact, small-particle aerosols, or direct hit by large-particle aerosols.
“The transmission of viruses that cause upper respiratory infections can occur by any of the three major mechanisms: 1) hand contact with secretions that contain the virus, either directly from an infected person or indirectly from environmental surfaces; 2) small-particle aerosols lingering in the air for an extended time; or 3) direct hit by large-particle aerosols from an infected person.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The pathogenesis of the common cold involves a complex interplay between replicating viruses and the host's inflammatory response.
“The pathogenesis of the common cold involves a complex interplay between replicating viruses and the host's inflammatory response.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Antibiotics are ineffective in the treatment of uncomplicated colds.
“In this era of ever-increasing antimicrobial resistance of bacteria, efforts aimed at the education of people about the ineffectiveness of antibiotics in the treatment of uncomplicated colds should be intensified.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Around two-thirds of older patients with common cold develop lower respiratory illness [66], while older individuals are 2–10 times more likely to die of infection than younger people [11].”
From Immune function and micronutrient requirements change over the life course (2018) · cites this paper as [66]
Citations
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Cited by
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Fuzzy Logic-Based COVID-19 and Other Respiratory Conditions Pre-clinical Diagnosis System
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Metadata
- Authors
- Heikkinen, T., & Järvinen, A.
- Affiliations
- Turku University Hospital (FI)
- Helsinki University Hospital (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Heikkinen, Terho
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 361
- Issue
- 9351
- Pages
- 51-59
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- PMC
- PMC7112468
- OpenAlex
- W2153771979
- Semantic Scholar
- bf116ddb795b7bf47038d26aa959d7a928878b61
- Cited by
- 1,067
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 4.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Respiratory viral infections research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Immunology Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Pediatric health and respiratory diseases
- Keywords
- common cold, rhinovirus, human metapneumovirus, respiratory viruses, host-virus interaction, inflammation, antiviral agents, virus detection, economic burden
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Antiviral Agents, Child, Common Cold, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Respiratory Tract Diseases, Seasons, Incidence, Age Distribution
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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