The emergence of human–wildlife conflict management: turning challenges into opportunities

“Not surprisingly, human attitudes toward – and conflicts with – wildlife have received considerable attention (Conover 1997; Messmer 2000; Distefano 2005; Woodroffe et al. 2005; Bekoff 2007).”

“Deep understanding of the biological and ecological relationship, with active participation of stakeholders to seek the solutions for HWC, can be more sustainable (Messmer, 2000).”

“…interaction between people and wildlife (e.g., property damage, human safety) or a negative interaction between people over a wildlife-focused behavior (e.g., management actions; Decker & Chase, 1997; Messmer, 2000; Peterson, Birckhead, Leong, Peterson, & Peterson, 2010; White & Ward, 2010).”

“…benefiting animal species are hunting bans, elimination of predatory species or competitors, introduction to new geographical regions, greater access to food, building of suitable habitats or shelters, and change in microclimates (e.g., Messmer 2000; McKinney 2008; Nentwig 2008; Moura et al. 2014).”

“Conflict becomes more serious in tropics and developing countries where agriculture and livestock rearing are important parts of local communities livelihood [19, 20].”

“However, human alteration of natural environments has led to imbalances in wildlife populations, which wildlife managers have sought to address through a variety of strategies (Messmer 2000).”

“…in production landscapes require regular harvest as wildlife populations may cause problems such as disease outbreaks and biodiversity reduction (Messmer 2000), and damage to crops, forests and vehicle collisions incur high costs that may be mitigated by hunting (Messmer 2000, Larson et al.”

“Expanding human development in Florida has brought people and wildlife into close proximity, thereby exacerbating human–wildlife conflicts (Messmer, 2000).”

“…Qinghai, China 307 形态学 Morphology 形态学 Morphology 36.9 58.9 2.3 9.8 2.9 34.2 Liu et al, 2003 中国青海 Qinghai, China 250 形态学 Morphology 形态学 Morphology 67.6 17.6 – 16.0 18.0 6.4 Li, 2012 中国新疆 Xinjiang, China 16 DNA 形态学 Morphology 50.0 112.5 81.3 156.3 25.0 – Wang et al, 2014 中国四川 Sichuan, China 18 DNA…”

“The propensity of HWC increases with proximity to settlements near protected areas where wildlife population density is higher [4], [5], [7], [8].”

“As a visual species, one of the first characteristics that humans perceive about a species is its physical appearance, including its color (Messmer, 2000; Courchamp et al., 2006).”

“…and encroachment due to such urban expansion, which is often irreversible, has forced many homeless animals to live in close proximity to humans (Bateman and Fleming, 2012), giving rise to frequent human-animal conflict (Messmer, 2000; Omondi, 2004; Woodroffe et al., 2005; Devi and Saikia, 2008).”

“…Marzluff 2001 for a review in birds) to the point that some of them now cause locally important damage, and raise security, public health, conservation and hence, economic and management concerns (Messmer 2000; Conover 2002; Courchamp et al. 2003; Woodroffe et al. 2005; Adams and Lindsey 2016).”

“Annually, over sixty percent of urban American households experience conflict with wildlife (Messmer, 2000).”

“Therefore, wildlife management in terms of forest–wildlife conflict management has become an emerging field for forest and wildlife conservation agencies, private organisations and professionals (Messmer, 2000).”

“Managing human–wildlife conflicts is an on-going concern in many areas because growing human populations result in increasing encounter rates with wildlife (Messmer 2000; Can et al. 2014).”

“There may be additional consequences of increased herbivore population abundance, such as increased human–wildlife conflict (Messmer 2000).”

“E-mail: jutta.gerner@ ifp.uni-freiburg.de 404 domestic animals or humans; Côté, Rooney, Tremblay, Dussault, & Waller, 2004; Messmer, 2000; Woodroffe, Thirgood, & Rabinowitz, 2005).”

“Another - 2 - consequence of increased human development is the associated increase in humanwildlife conflicts (Messmer 2000).”

“Key words: Australia, Crocodylus porosus, cryptic ambush-predator, eDNA, estuarine crocodile, human predator, human–wildlife conflict, wildlife attacks Large carnivores may pose a significant threat to humans and livestock (Messmer 2000, Treves and Karanth 2003, Mponzi et al. 2014).”

“Uncertainty associated with achieving conservation objectives will thus carry societal and political risks [14– 17].”

“In recent decades, the success of urban wildlife conservation and the restoration of urban wildlife habitats have led to growing animal populations in cities [1–3] and an increase in urban humanwildlife conflict [4,5].”

“However, the rate at which human populations are expanding and the novel environments created lead to increasingly frequent and complex confl ict situations (Messmer 2000, Fall and Jackson 2002).”

“Scienti fi c literature and reports indicate human – wildlife con fl icts (HWC) are increasing around the world, often due to population growth and the expanding human – wildland interface (Messmer 2000, 2009; Henle et al. 2008; White and Ward 2010).”

“Thus a better understanding of movement and behavior of conflict prevalent species in relation to humans can aid in developing preventative measures (Messmer, 2000).”

“Dejene (2003) discovered that the local communities were not entirely antagonistic towards wildlife conservation, and as Messmer (2000) explained, the attitudes towards wildlife vary among rural agricultural producers.”

“…2003; Lepczyk, Mertig, & Liu, 2004), or roadkill (Forman & Alexander, 1998) and can negatively impact people's wellbeing through damage to property (Messmer, 2000), transmission of infectious zoonotic diseases (Daszak, Cunningham, & Hyatt, 2000; Patz et al., 2004), or physical attack (Soulsbury &…”

“Although the extention of urban areas into rural zones has been traditionally considered the main problem, in more recent years, the overabundant wildlife populations are also coming into contact with settled areas, through source–sink dynamics, especially towards human food sources (Messmer 2000; Konig et al. 2020).”

“Managing and resolving these conflicts are important for the coexistence of both humans and wildlife and remain a key priority for many communities around the world [6,7].”

“One of its main causes is damage by wildlife, which threatens livelihoods and the mental well-being of people affected (Messmer, 2000).”

“However, some species, crows among them, have become more abundant as a consequence of changed habitats, pro-conservation regulations and protective measures (Messmer 2000).”

“…conflict has a long history, it has become a major concern for wildlife management due to its expanding magnitude and nature complexity as previously, conflict over human wildlife was thought to be rural or agricultural problem (Messmer, 2000), affecting largely local communities nearer to forests.”

“Some authors are finding that conflict management approaches can be used effectively to manage the HWC ([8]; [9]; [10]).”

“Financial incentives to landown-ers can significantly promote conservation and foster human–wildlife coexistence if these monetary rewards can be invested in education, health, and personal development (Messmer, 2000).”

“…human population and the resultant degradation and fragmentation of habitat have inadvertently affected wildlife and increased the proximity-driven interaction between humans and wildlife (Messmer, 2000; Messmer, 2009; Inskip and Zimmermann, 2009; Elfström et al., 2014; Joshi et al., 2016).”

“…methods requires baseline information, knowledge, and active involvement of ecologists, wildlife biologists, wildlife managers, and other major stakeholders across the globe who will assist protected area management and sustainable livelihood (Messmer 2000; Bowen-Jones 2012; Dickman, 2010).”

“In addition to causing property damage (Conover et al. 1995, Messmer 2000), these animals are potential vectors for a number of zoonotic diseases, including rabies (Rosatt e et al. 1991, Riley et al. 1998, Broadfoot et al. 2001) and raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) (Roussere et al. 2003,…”

“Urbanization and protection/promotion of wildlife need not be contradictory goals (Conover, 1997; Messmer, 2000); nor spatially separated (Cadenasso et al., 2006; DeSte-fano et al., 2005; DeStefano & DeGraaf, 2003; Grimm et al., 2000; Pickett & Grove, 2009; Pickett et al., 2001; Pickett &…”

“…are urgent scientific priorities for conservation (Rosenzweig, 2003; Sol et al., 2013) and for the wellbeing of both wildlife (Bennett, 2017; Forman & Alexander, 1998; Lepczyk et al., 2004; Wise, 2007) and humans (Daszak et al., 2000; Messmer, 2000; Patz et al., 2004; Soulsbury & White, 2015).”

“Negative impacts, such as wildlife damage, car collisions, and perceptions of fear can limit the acceptance of wildlife by stakeholders and thus inhibit human–wildlife coexistence (Carpenter et al. 2000, Messmer 2000).”

“This should be considered as an associated problem of the no-till technology, and farmers should adapt ways of managing/mitigating the conflict (Frank 2015; Messmer 2000; Zufiaurre et al.”

“This finding contradicts many studies that categorize farmers as dominionistic, with the assumption being that farmers are more concerned with how wildlife depredation impacts them economically (Hariohay, Fyumagwa, Kideghesho, & Røskaft, 2018; Messmer, 2000).”

“Accordingly, conflicts between agricultural producers and wildlife arise when the growth of populations of pest species affect human interests (Messmer 2000).”

“In addition, the management of these conflicts will become more complex from the range of factors that need to be considered (Marshall et al., 2007 ; Messmer, 2000; Ravenelle & Nyhus, 2017 ) and growing public expectation of governmental response and management (Berry & Rondinelli, 1998 ).”

“In human – animal scholarship, these are widely explored as ‘ human – wildlife ’ con fl icts (Messmer, 2000; Pooley et al., 2021).”

“humans and Hippos overlap, spurring competition for food, space, and water and thus creating tension between people and Hippos (Messmer, 2000; Seoraj-Pillai & Pillay, 2017).”

“As other researchers have reported, timber harvesting, poaching, non-timber forest production harvesting and agricultural encroachment are the main threats to biodiversity conservation [4,5] causing significant declines in forest resources and diversity [2].”

“J Biodivers Endanger Species, an open access journal ISSN: 2332-2543 Volume 5 • Issue 1 • 1000185 mediation skills become harder to cope with social structures and social dynamics that tend to be overwhelming [74].”

“Besides these, the succeeding is also considered as antipathy between humans and wildlife; when accident with automobiles and animals happen, when aerodyne hits avifauna, and when sick wildlife chew (Messmer, 2000).”

“The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), (2019); BowenJones (2012), Dickman (2010) and Messmer (2000) assert that human–wildlife tourism conflict is increasingly becoming a major concern in light of the desire to ensure full participation and inclusion of local communities; optimisation of…”

“Human-carnivore interactions represent a grand challenge to conservation decision-making and legitimacy (Primm and Clark, 1996, p. 1037; Messmer, 2000, p. 1000; Serenari and Taub, 2019, p. 1).”

“Ongoing stress causes undesirable health impacts on communities when agencies mismanage elephant-related conflicts (Messmer, 2000).”

“Birds represent a major source of human–wildlife conflict and cause of agriculture damage worldwide (Messmer, 2000).”

“Human–wildlife conflict encompasses crop damage, livestock depredation, disease transmission, and predatory attacks on humans (Messmer 2000, Woodroffe et al. 2009, Mattson et al. 2011).”