How does radiation kill cells?

Apoptosis: A Basic Biological Phenomenon with Wideranging Implications in Tissue Kinetics

Kerr, J. F. R., Wyllie, A. H., & Currie, A. R. (1972) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/bjc.1972.33 · Cited by 15,673 · see citing works

Telomeres shorten during ageing of human fibroblasts

Harley, C. B., Futcher, A. B., & Greider, C. W. (1990) · Nature · doi:10.1038/345458a0 · Cited by 5,750 · see citing works

Participation of p53 protein in the cellular response to DNA damage.

Kastan, M. B., Onyekwere, O. C., Sidransky, D., Vogelstein, B., & Craig, R. W. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 3,761 · see citing works

p53 is required for radiation-induced apoptosis in mouse thymocytes

Lowe, S. W., Schmitt, E. M., Smith, S. W., Osborne, B. A., & Jacks, T. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/362847a0 · Cited by 2,864 · see citing works

Thymocyte apoptosis induced by p53-dependent and independent pathways

Clarke, A. R., Purdie, C. A., Harrison, D. J., Morris, R. G., Bird, C. C., Hooper, M. L., & Wyllie, A. H. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/362849a0 · Cited by 2,271 · see citing works

Tumor suppressor p53 is a regulator of bcl-2 and bax gene expression in vitro and in vivo.

Miyashita, T., Krajewski, S., Krajewska, M., Wang, H., Lin, H., Liebermann, D. A., Hoffman‐Liebermann, B., & Reed, J. C. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 2,143 · see citing works

Mice Lacking p21CIP1/WAF1 undergo normal development, but are defective in G1 checkpoint control

Deng, C., Zhang, P., Wade Harper, J., Elledge, S. J., & Leder, P. (1995) · Cell · doi:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90039-x · Cited by 2,113 · see citing works

Wild-type p53 is a cell cycle checkpoint determinant following irradiation.

Kuerbitz, S. J., Plunkett, B., Walsh, W., & Kastan, M. B. (1992) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.89.16.7491 · Cited by 1,837 · see citing works

Requirement for ceramide-initiated SAPK/JNK signalling in stress-induced apoptosis

Verheij, M., Bose, R., Lin, X. H., Yao, B., Jarvis, W. D., Grant, S., Birrer, M. J., Szabo, E. M., Zon, L. I., Kyriakis, J. M., et al. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/380075a0 · Cited by 1,767 · see citing works

Involvement of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16 (INK4a) in replicative senescence of normal human fibroblasts

Alcorta, D. A., Xiong, Y., Phelps, D., Hannon, G., Beach, D., & Barrett, J. C. (1996) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.93.24.13742 · Cited by 1,008 · see citing works

Ionizing radiation acts on cellular membranes to generate ceramide and initiate apoptosis.

Haimovitz‐Friedman, A., Kan, C., Ehleiter, D., Persaud, R. S., McLoughlin, M., FUKS, Z. Y., & Kolesnick, R. (1994) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.180.2.525 · Cited by 905 · see citing works

The Role of c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) in Apoptosis Induced by Ultraviolet C and γ Radiation

Chen, Y.-R., Wang, X., Templeton, D., Davis, R. J., & Tan, T.-H. (1996) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.271.50.31929 · Cited by 867 · see citing works

Acid Sphingomyelinase–Deficient Human Lymphoblasts and Mice Are Defective in Radiation-Induced Apoptosis

Santana, M., Peña, L. A., Haimovitz‐Friedman, A., Martin, S. J., Green, D. R., McLoughlin, M., Cordon‐Cardo, C., Schuchman, E. H., FUKS, Z. Y., & Kolesnick, R. (1996) · Cell · doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80091-4 · Cited by 798 · see citing works

Replicative Senescence: the Human Fibroblast Comes of Age

Goldstein, S. (1990) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2204114 · Cited by 651 · see citing works

Apoptosis and the regulation of cell numbers in normal and neoplastic tissues: an overview

Wyllie, A. H. (1992) · Cancer and Metastasis Reviews · doi:10.1007/bf00048057 · Cited by 588 · see citing works

The role of p53 in spontaneous and radiation-induced apoptosis in the gastrointestinal tract of normal and p53-deficient mice.

Merritt, A. J., Potten, C. S., Kemp, C. J., Hickman, J. A., Balmain, A., Lane, D. P., & Hall, P. A. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 560 · see citing works

Premature p34 cdc2 Activation Required for Apoptosis

Shi, L. F., Nishioka, W. K., Th'ng, J. P. H., Bradbury, E. M., Litchfield, D. W., & Greenberg, A. H. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8108732 · Cited by 557 · see citing works

Radiation-induced apoptosis: Relevance to radiotherapy

Dewey, W. C., Ling, C. C., & Meyn, R. E. (1995) · International Journal of Radiation Oncology*Biology*Physics · doi:10.1016/0360-3016(95)00214-8 · Cited by 523 · see citing works

Apoptosis-the molecular basis of cell death

Bowen, I. D. (1992) · Endeavour · doi:10.1016/0160-9327(92)90055-t · Cited by 519 · see citing works

Apoptosis: The Molecular Basis of Cell Death

Tomei, L., & Cope, F. O. (1991) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 436 · see citing works

Requirement for Atm in Ionizing Radiation-Induced Cell Death in the Developing Central Nervous System

Herzog, K., Chong, M. J., Kapsetaki, M., Morgan, J. I., & McKinnon, P. J. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1089 · Cited by 417 · see citing works

Radiation-Induced Chromosome Damage in Man

Savage, J. R. K. (1984) · International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies in Physics Chemistry and Medicine · doi:10.1080/09553008414551861 · Cited by 389 · see citing works

Enzymatic Restriction of Mammalian Cell DNA Using Pvu II and Bam H1: Evidence for the Double-strand Break Origin of Chromosomal Aberrations

Bryant, P. E. (1984) · International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies in Physics Chemistry and Medicine · doi:10.1080/09553008414551061 · Cited by 307 · see citing works

p53 dependence of early apoptotic and proliferative responses within the mouse intestinal epithelium following gamma-irradiation.

Clarke, A. R., Gledhill, S., Ml, H., Bird, C. C., & Wyllie, A. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 267 · see citing works

The p53-dependent G1 cell cycle checkpoint pathway and ataxia-telangiectasia.

Canman, C. E., Wolff, A. C., Chen, C.-Y., Fornace, A. J., & Kastan, M. B. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 246 · see citing works

atm and p53 cooperate in apoptosis and suppression of tumorigenesis, but not in resistance to acute radiation toxicity

Westphal, C. H., Rowan, S., Schmaltz, C., Elson, A., Fisher, D. E., & Leder, P. (1997) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng0897-397 · Cited by 226 · see citing works

Apoptosis in small intestinal epithelia from p53-null mice: evidence for a delayed, p53-indepdendent G2/M-associated cell death after γ-irradiation

Merritt, A. J., Allen, T., Potten, C. S., et al. (1997) · Oncogene · doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1201126 · Cited by 214 · see citing works

Ceramide Formation Leads to Caspase-3 Activation during Hypoxic PC12 Cell Death

Yoshimura, S., Banno, Y., Nakashima, S., et al. (1998) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.273.12.6921 · Cited by 204 · see citing works

Radiation-induced chromosome damage in man

石原, 隆., & Sasaki, M. S. (1983) · A.R. Liss eBooks · Cited by 202 · see citing works

Atm selectively regulates distinct p53-dependent cell-cycle checkpoint and apoptotic pathways

Barlow, C., Brown, K. D., Deng, C., Tagle, D. A., & Wynshaw-Boris, A. J. (1997) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng1297-453 · Cited by 198 · see citing works

CYCLIN B EXPRESSION IN HELA CELLS DURING THE G2 BLOCK INDUCED BY IONIZING RADIATION

Muschel, R. J., Zhang, H. B., Iliakis, G. E., & McKenna, W. G. (1991) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-168561-4.50651-x · Cited by 158 · see citing works

Selective radiosensitization of p53–deficient cells by caffeine–mediated activation of p34cdc2 kinase

Yao, S.-L., Akhtar, A. J., Mckenna, K. A., Bedi, G. C., Sidransky, D., Mabry, M. H., Ravi, R. K., Collector, M. I., Jones, R. J., Sharkis, S. J., et al. (1996) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1096-1140 · Cited by 157 · see citing works

The sphingomyelin signal transduction pathway mediates apoptosis for tumor necrosis factor, Fas, and ionizing radiation

Kolesnick, R. N., Haimovitz‐Friedman, A., & Fuks, Z. (1994) · Biochemistry and Cell Biology · doi:10.1139/o94-063 · Cited by 149 · see citing works

bcl-2 over-expression delays radiation-induced apoptosis without affecting the clonogenic survival of human prostate cancer cells

Kyprianou, N., King, E. D., Bradbury, D., & Rhee, J. G. (1997) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19970127)70:3 · Cited by 146 · see citing works

Suppression of Bcl-2 messenger RNA production may mediate apoptosis after ionizing radiation, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and ceramide.

Chen, M., Quintáns, J., FUKS, Z. Y., Thompson, C. B., Kufe, D. W., & Weichselbaum, R. R. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 136 · see citing works

p53-dependent DNA damage-induced apoptosis requires Fas/APO-1-independent activation of CPP32beta.

Fuchs, E. J., Mckenna, K. A., & Bedi, A. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 132 · see citing works

Resistance to radiation-induced apoptosis in Burkitt's lymphoma cells is associated with defective ceramide signaling.

Michael, J. M., Lavin, M. F., & Watters, D. J. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 122 · see citing works

Radiation-induced apoptosis in a murine T-cell hybridoma.

Warters, R. L. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 112 · see citing works

Radiation Response of Mouse Lymphoid and Myeloid Cell Lines. Part II. Apoptotic Death is Shown by all Lines Examined

Radford, I. R., Murphy, T. K., Radley, J., & Ellis, S. L. (1994) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/09553009414550251 · Cited by 112 · see citing works

Micronuclei: a biological indicator of radiation damage

Müller, W.-U., Nüsse, M., Miller, B. M., et al. (1996) · Mutation Research/Reviews in Genetic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/s0165-1110(96)90037-8 · Cited by 101 · see citing works

The Frequency of Micronuclei as a Measure of Cell Survival in Irradiated Cell Populations

Midander, J., & Révész, L. (1980) · International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies in Physics Chemistry and Medicine · doi:10.1080/09553008014551161 · Cited by 101 · see citing works

Cell Death (Apoptosis) in the Mouse Small Intestine after Low Doses: Effects of Dose-rate, 14·7 MeV Neutrons, and 600 MeV (Maximum Energy) Neutrons

Hendry, J. H., Potten, C. S., Chadwick, C., et al. (1982) · International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies in Physics Chemistry and Medicine · doi:10.1080/09553008214551591 · Cited by 100 · see citing works

Decreasing the apoptotic threshold of tumor cells through protein kinase C inhibition and sphingomyelinase activation increases tumor killing by ionizing radiation.

Chmura, S. J., Mauceri, H. J., Advani, S. J., et al. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 99 · see citing works

Explaining differences in sensitivity to killing by ionizing radiation between human lymphoid cell lines.

Aldridge, D. R., & Radford, I. R. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 98 · see citing works

Sodium Butyrate Induces NIH3T3 Cells to Senescence-like State and Enhances Promoter Activity of p21WAF/CIP1in p53-Independent Manner

Xiao, H., Hasegawa, T., Miyaishi, O., Ohkusu‐Tsukada, K., & Isobe, K. (1997) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.7158 · Cited by 93 · see citing works

Apoptosis: an indicator of radiosensitivity in vitro ?

Durand, P. (1997) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/095530097143707 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Modulation of Radiation-Induced Apoptosis and G 2 /M Block in Murine T-Lymphoma Cells

Palayoor, S. T., Macklis, R. M., Bump, E. A., & Coleman, C. N. (1995) · Radiation Research · doi:10.2307/3579000 · Cited by 90 · see citing works

Caspase-mediated Cleavage of the Ubiquitin-protein Ligase Nedd4 during Apoptosis

Harvey, K. F., Harvey, N. L., Michael, J. M., Parasivam, G., Waterhouse, N. J., Alnemri, E. S., Watters, D. J., & Kumar, S. (1998) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.273.22.13524 · Cited by 73 · see citing works

Micronucleus formation in human tumour cells: lack of correlation with radiosensitivity

Bush, C., & McMillan, T. (1993) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/bjc.1993.17 · Cited by 67 · see citing works

Reducing the radiation-induced G2 delay causes HeLa cells to undergo apoptosis instead of mitotic death

Bernhard, E. J. (1996) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/095530096145580 · Cited by 66 · see citing works

Review Chromosome healing, telomere capture and mechanisms of radiation-induced chromosome breakage

Bryant, P. E. (1998) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/095530098142653 · Cited by 65 · see citing works

Radiation-induced Apoptotic Cell Death in Human Gastric Epithelial Tumour Cells; Correlation Between Mitotic Death and Apoptosis

Yanagihara, K., Makoto, N. I. I., Numoto, M., et al. (1995) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/09553009514550801 · Cited by 64 · see citing works

Acquisition of Telomere Repeat Sequences by Transfected DNA Integrated at the Site of a Chromosome Break

Murnane, J. P., & Yu, L. ‐. (1993) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.13.2.977 · Cited by 63 · see citing works

Analysis of Mitotic Cell Death Caused by Radiation in Mouse Leukaemia L5178Y Cells: Apoptosis is the Ultimate Form of Cell Death Following Mitotic Failure

Tauchi, H., & Sawada, S. (1994) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/09553009414550521 · Cited by 62 · see citing works

Regulation of radiation-induced apoptosis in oncogene-transfected fibroblasts: influence of H-ras on the G2 delay.

Wg, M., Bernhard, E. J., Markiewicz, D. A., Rudoltz, M. S., Maity, A. M., & Muschel, R. J. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 62 · see citing works

Simultaneous evaluation of radiation-induced apoptosis and micronuclei in five cell lines

SH, G. Z. G. K. S. N. O. T. T. K. (1998) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/095530098142392 · Cited by 60 · see citing works

Dissociation between cell cycle arrest and apoptosis can occur in Li-Fraumeni cells heterozygous for p53 gene mutations

Delia, D., Goi, K., Mizutani, S., et al. (1997) · Oncogene · doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1201050 · Cited by 49 · see citing works

Radiation-induced micronucleus formation in human skin fibroblasts of patients showing severe and normal tissue damage after radiotherapy

ST, U. N. U. O. M. F. H. (1998) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/095530098142374 · Cited by 44 · see citing works

Increased Expression of Cyclin B1 mRNA Coincides with Diminished G 2 -Phase Arrest in Irradiated HeLa Cells Treated with Staurosporine or Caffeine

Bernhard, E. J., Maity, A. M., Muschel, R. J., et al. (1994) · Radiation Research · doi:10.2307/3579118 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Cyclin Expression in HeLa Cells

Muschel, R. J., Zhang, H. B., Iliakis, G. E., et al. (1992) · Radiation Research · doi:10.2307/3578520 · Cited by 39 · see citing works

Correlation of Radiation-Induced Micronucleus Frequency with Clonogenic Survival in Cells of One Diploid and Two Tetraploid Murine Tumor Cell Lines of the Same Origin

Mariya, Y., Streffer, C., Fuhrmann, C., et al. (1997) · Radiation Research · doi:10.2307/3579439 · Cited by 35 · see citing works

Telomeres, senescence and cellular radiation response

Crompton, N. E. A. (1997) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s000180050073 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Telomeres and radiation-induced chromosome breakage

Shjepcevic, P., Natarajan, A. T., & Bryant, P. E. (1998) · Mutagenesis · doi:10.1093/mutage/13.1.45 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Relationship between Survival Period and Dose of Irradiation in Rat Thymocytesin Vitro

Yamaguchi, T. (1967) · International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies in Physics Chemistry and Medicine · doi:10.1080/09553006714550761 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

Radiation-Induced Micronuclei Formation in Human Breast Cancer Cells: Dependence on Serum and Cell Cycle Distribution

Paglin, S., Delohery, T. M., Erlandson, R. A., et al. (1997) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.7117 · Cited by 18 · see citing works

Acquisition of Telomere Repeat Sequences by Transfected DNA Integrated at the Site of a Chromosome Break

Murnane, J. P., & Yu, L.-C. (1993) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.13.2.977-983.1993 · Cited by 17 · see citing works

Micronuclei expression in tumours as a test for radiation sensitivity

Bakker, P. J. M., Tukker, L. J., Stap, J., et al. (1993) · Radiotherapy and Oncology · doi:10.1016/0167-8140(93)90028-7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

Radiation-induced Apoptotic Cell Death in Human Gastric Epithelial Tumor Cells

Yanagihara, K., Numoto, M., Kamiya, K., et al. (1994) · Journal of Radiation Research · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Simultaneous evaluation of radiation-induced apoptosis and micronucei in five cell lines

郭, 国. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · doi:10.11501/3147500 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Characterization of senescence- and apoptosis-dependent forms of terminin as derived from a precursor found in replicating and nonreplicating cells

Wang, E., & Liu, D. (1996) · Journal of Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(19960101)60:1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Association of reactive oxygen species levels and radioresistance in cancer stem cells

Diehn, M., Cho, R. W., Lobo, N. A., Kalisky, T., Dorie, M. J., Kulp, A. N., Qian, D., Lam, J. S., Ailles, L. E., Wong, M., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07733 · Cited by 2,555 · see citing works

Mitotic progression following DNA damage enables pattern recognition within micronuclei

Harding, S. M., Benci, J. L., Irianto, J., Discher, D. E., Minn, A. J., & Greenberg, R. A. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature23470 · Cited by 1,508 · see citing works

Molecular Mechanisms of Radiation-Induced Cancer Cell Death: A Primer

Sia, J., Szmyd, R., Hau, E., & Gee, H. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2020.00041 · Cited by 378 · see citing works

Inhibition of Chk1 by CEP-3891 accelerates mitotic nuclear fragmentation in response to ionizing radiation

Syljuåsen, R. G., Sørensen, C. S., Nylandsted, J., Lukas, C., Lukas, J., & Bartek, J. (2004) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-2434 · Cited by 99 · see citing works

Normal-Tissue Tolerance to Radiopharmaceutical Therapies, the Knowns and the Unknowns

Wahl, R. L., Sgouros, G., Iravani, A., Jacene, H., Pryma, D., Saboury, B., Capala, J., & Graves, S. A. (2021) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.121.262751 · Cited by 95 · see citing works

Antitumoral Efficacy of AuNRs‐Laden ECFCs In Vitro and In Vivo: Decoding the Heat and Rays Combo Treatment in Breast Cancer and Melanoma Cells

Anceschi, C., Scavone, F., Armanetti, P., Menichetti, L., Catarinicchia, C., Borri, C., Ratto, F., Micheletti, F., Formica, N., Ruzzolini, J., et al. (2025) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.202502416 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Structural Properties of Polyphenols Causing Cell Cycle Arrest at G1 Phase in HCT116 Human Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines

Shin, S. Y., Yoon, H. S., Ahn, S., Kim, D. W., Bae, D., Koh, D., Lee, Y. H., & Lim, Y. (2013) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms140816970 · Cited by 36 · see citing works

p27Kip1 Is Required to Mediate a G1 Cell Cycle Arrest Downstream of ATM following Genotoxic Stress

Cassimere, E. K., Mauvais, C., & Denicourt, C. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162806 · Cited by 28 · see citing works

G1 versus G2 cell cycle arrest after adriamycin‐induced damage in mouse Swiss3T3 cells

Siu, W. Y., Yam, C. H., & Poon, R. Y. C. (1999) · FEBS Letters · doi:10.1016/s0014-5793(99)01481-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works

Ligustrazine induces the colorectal cancer cells apoptosis via p53-dependent mitochondrial pathway and cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase

Bian, Y., Yang, L., Sheng, W., Li, Z., Xu, Y., Li, W., & Zeng, L. (2021) · Annals of Palliative Medicine · doi:10.21037/apm-20-288 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Effect of Marsdenia tenacissima extract on G2/M cell cycle arrest by upregulating 14-3-3σ and downregulating c-myc in vitro and in vivo

Sun, L., Ain, Q. U., Gao, Y., Khan, G. J., Yuan, S., & Roy, D. (2019) · Chinese Herbal Medicines · doi:10.1016/j.chmed.2019.03.002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works