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Cited by 110Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and HistoryAncient Near East HistoryAncient and Medieval Archaeology Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 457 of the 477 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 71 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant

Open access
Greenberg, Raphael·2019·Cambridge University Press eBooks
DOI 10.1017/9781316275993
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Abstract

The Levant - modern Lebanon, southern Syria, Jordan, Israel and Palestine - is one of the most intensively excavated regions of the world. This richly documented and illustrated survey offers a state-of-the-art description of the formative phase of Levantine societies, as they perfected the Mediterranean village economy and began to interact with neighboring civilizations in Egypt and Syria, on the way to establishing their first towns and city-state polities. Citing numerous finds and interpretive approaches, Greenberg offers a new narrative of social and cultural development, emulation, resistance and change, illustrating how Levantine communities translated broader movements of the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Bronze Age - the emergence of states, international trade, elite networks and imperial ambitions - into a uniquely Levantine idiom.

Overview

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This chapter synthesizes the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) Levant as a long post-urban, village-based, politically segmented period, roughly 2500–2000 BCE, increasingly drawn into the orbit of urban Syria. It argues the period was not simple collapse or nomadic invasion but a restructuring of settlement, economy, and mortuary practice amid new regional connectivity.

Key findings

  • By c. 2400 BCE all Levantine sites with EB III presence were abandoned, some briefly and others permanently; the IBA lasted 400–600 years depending on subregion and is characterized by tell-avoidance, marginal-zone settlement, and village sites.
  • Surveys record an abundance of IBA sites: 285 find-spots in the West Bank database, more than 250 east of the Jordan, upward of 300 in the Negev Highlands, perhaps 500 in the Negev and Arabah, and a similar number in northern/central Sinai—approaching 2,000 sites in all parts of the Levant and Sinai.
  • Mortuary practice was prominent: more than 100 shaft-tomb cemeteries are known; Jericho had about 350 adults and 20 subadults in about 360 tombs, while ‘Ain Samiya/Dhahr Mirzbaneh had 1,100 tombs and Kirmil 850.
  • IBA ceramics shifted toward village workshop production and drinking vessels, with Syrian-inspired black wheelmade ware; copper-alloy daggers in Type A burials contained 1–5 percent arsenic, suggesting northern copper sources. Negev Highlands “boomtowns” are reinterpreted as tied to pastoral/wool economies rather than a convincing copper boom.

Methods

  • Design: a synthetic regional and thematic synthesis of the IBA Levant, presented as a book chapter rather than a primary excavation report.
  • Data: archaeological surveys and excavations, ceramic typology and provenance studies, radiocarbon and OSL dates, faunal and botanical assemblages, mortuary data, and comparative Syrian/Near Eastern evidence.
  • Main analysis: comparative synthesis of settlement patterns, material culture, exchange, climate, and mortuary treatment across Lebanon, Galilee, Jordan Valley, highlands, coastal plain, Negev, and Sinai.

Limitations

  • The paper states that absolute chronology at both ends of the period and between internal stages is ill-defined because of absent modeled radiocarbon sequences from EB III to IB and IB to MB I, few stratified IBA sites, and imprecise survey period attributions.
  • It also notes that tomb typologies have not been successfully correlated with other significant community characterizations, and that bioarchaeological data and secure comparative living-community assemblages are lacking.
  • Evident from the text: the synthesis depends heavily on survey, salvage, and chance finds, with some excavated household descriptions still unpublished and the “copper boom” theory lacking a convincing chronological context.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/9781316275993

Cites

457 of 457 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Verification

Claims the paper makes

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Show all 100 claims

  • It may state two separate claims as one. 75
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 26
92 of 92

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The excavated IBA villages are representative of IBA village life as a whole.

    “The preceding survey of IBA villages, most of them excavated or published in recent decades, offers a new and remarkably uniform portrait of IBA village life”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The archaeological record is complete enough to detect public construction in IBA villages.

    “where urban power was expressed through collective labor and monumental construction, village houses reflected the labor power of the nuclear or extended family alone, and no public construction was attempted.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The archaeological record from surveys and excavations is representative enough of past settlement patterns to support conclusions about IBA settlement dynamics.

    “Hundreds of surveyed sites and scores of excavations in IBA sites of the Negev and Sinai portray a vivid picture of desert settlement, resource extraction, and trade.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A long line of transmission – or an extended biography – for the 'Ain Samiya goblet.

    “In the absence of a local context for the creation and formal use of a ceremonial object of this caliber, we must assume a long line of transmission – or an extended biography – for this object.”
4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • IBA burials are described as both outside and within settlements

    Minor

    The categorical claim that all IBA burials took place outside settlements conflicts with the account of individual burials in caves within the Nahal Refa'im settlement.

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Authors
Greenberg, R.
Affiliations
Tel Aviv University (IL)
Corresponding author
Greenberg, Raphael
ORCID
Greenberg, Raphael
Venue
Cambridge University Press eBooks
Publisher
Cambridge University Press
Published
2019-10-21
DOI
10.1017/9781316275993
OpenAlex
W3208455634
Semantic Scholar
8651b2f7ee1848e644302428dbd14583f6b3fafd
Cited by
110
References
477
Citations by year
2026: 19 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 2
FWCI
17.98
Type
book
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Near East History
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
Keywords
Bronze Age Levant, Levantine archaeology, village economy, urbanization, state formation, international trade, elite networks, sociocultural change

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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