Self-awareness in animals
Abstract
This chapter claims that the cumulative force of various empirical data and conceptual considerations makes it more reasonable to accept than to deny that many animals are self-aware. It considers studies focusing on animals' preferences. In the philosophy of mind, desires and beliefs are classified as propositional attitudes, mental states that take propositions or sentences as their objects. Desires to do certain things and intentional actions that involve doing them suggest at least some rudimentary awareness of oneself as persisting through time. Strengthening the case for intentional action, and therefore for bodily self-awareness, is evidence of more sophisticated behaviors in animals involving planning, complex problem-solving, and/or tool use. Like intentional action involving a plan, fear requires some awareness that one will continue into the future. Since Gordon Gallup's pioneering experiments, self-recognition with mirrors has often been cited as evidence of self-awareness in animals.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Self-consciousness, or selfhood, is a capacity that admits of gradations.
“Like all the other dimensions, this is a capacity that admits of gradations [60,61].”
From Dimensions of Animal Consciousness (2020) · cites this paper as [61]
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2013 Edition
Leary, S., Underwood, W. J., Anthony, R., Cartner, S. C., Corey, D. G., Grandin, T., Greenacre, C. B., Gwaltney-Bran, S., McCrackin, M. A., Meyer, R. E., et al. (2013) · Cited by 1,349 · see citing works
Dimensions of Animal Consciousness
Birch, J., Schnell, A. K., & Clayton, N. S. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.07.007 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Ethical issues related to brain organoid research
Hyun, I., Scharf-Deering, J. C., & Lunshof, J. E. (2020) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146653 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Science, sentience, and animal welfare
Jones, R. C. (2013) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-012-9351-1 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Interspecies justice: agency, self-determination, and assent
Healey, R., & Pepper, A. (2020) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-020-01472-5 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Arango‐Muñoz, S. (2010) · Philosophia · doi:10.1007/s11406-010-9279-0 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
von Mücke-Heim, I.-A., Urbina-Treviño, L., Bordes, J., Ries, C., Schmidt, M. V., & Deussing, J. M. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01762-w · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Neindre, P. L., Bernard, É., Boissy, A., Boivin, X., Calandreau, L., Delon, N., Deputte, B. L., Desmoulin‐Canselier, S., Dunier, M., Faivre, N., et al. (2017) · EFSA Supporting Publications · doi:10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.en-1196 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Meaning in the lives of humans and other animals
Purves, D., & Delon, N. (2017) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-017-0869-6 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.001.0001 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Our own minds: sociocultural grounds for self-consciousness
(2011) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.48-3781 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Ehret, G., & Romand, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2022.941534 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Human‐Animal Chimeras: The Moral Insignificance of Uniquely Human Capacities
Koplin, J. J. (2019) · The Hastings Center Report · doi:10.1002/hast.1051 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.001.0001 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Le Neindre, P., Dunier, M., Larrere, R., & Prunet, P. (2018) · doi:10.35690/978-2-7592-2871-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Intelligence in cyberspace: the road to cyber singularity
Priyadarshini, I., & Cotton, C. (2020) · Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/0952813x.2020.1784296 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sparrow, R. (2020) · The International Encyclopedia of Ethics · doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee870 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Zipple, M. N., Hazelwood, C. C., Webster, M. F., & Benítez, M. E. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.241255 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
ANIMAL SUFFERING, EVOLUTION, AND THE ORIGINS OF EVIL: TOWARD A “FREE CREATURES” DEFENSE
Moritz, J. M. (2014) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/zygo.12085 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Arruda, C. T., & Povinelli, D. J. (2015) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0835-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Fish self-awareness: limits of current knowledge and theoretical expectations
Hubená, P., Horký, P., & Slavík, O. (2022) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-021-01566-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.001.0001 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Nonhuman Animals and Epistemic Injustice
Lopez, A. (2023) · Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy · doi:10.26556/jesp.v25i1.2201 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Aproximación Neurodinámica a la Cognición Social
Rodríguez, D. A. L., & Cárdenas, F. P. (2017) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy15-5.ancs · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Methods, minds, memory, and kinds
Springle, A. A. (2019) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2019.1607277 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A multidimensional approach to the self in non-human animals through the Pattern Theory of Self
Laurenzi, M., Raffone, A., Gallagher, S., & Chiarella, S. G. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1561420 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Bagheri, E. (2023) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-023-01022-z · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Odontocetes (‘toothed whales’): cognitive science and moral standing–are dolphins persons?
Pettit, S. G., & McCulloch, S. P. (2023) · Journal of Applied Animal Ethics Research · doi:10.1163/25889567-bja10033 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Inner Lives of Cephalopods
Schnell, A. K., Wright, N. R. F., & Clayton, N. S. (2023) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icad122 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cetacean Personhood, Rights, and Flourishing
Marino, L., & White, T. I. (2022) · Ethology and behavioral ecology of marine mammals · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98100-6_12 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Jeon, D., Kim, S., Lee, S. K., & Chu, K. (2021) · encephalitis · doi:10.47936/encephalitis.2021.00080 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
14. Beneath the surface: killing of fish as a moral problem
Bovenkerk, B., & Braithwaite, V. A. (2016) · Wageningen Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-808-7_14 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Global Survey on the Perception of Conservationists Regarding Animal Consciousness
Yakhlef, V., Magalhães‐Sant’Ana, M., Pereira, A. L., & Azevedo, A. (2025) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani15030341 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The ‘Sub-Rational’ in Scottish Moral Science
Carey, T. V. (2011) · Journal of Scottish Philosophy · doi:10.3366/jsp.2011.0017 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Whom Would Animals Designate as “Persons”?
Oriel, E. (2014) · Journal of Ethics and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.55613/jeet.v24i3.32 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Beneath the surface: killing of fish as a moral problem
Bovenkerk, B., & Meijboom, F. L. B. (2013) · Wageningen Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-784-4_39 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-Awareness and Selfhood in Animals
Thomas, N. E. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-58685-8_3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gennaro, R. J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1611-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Barber-Meyer, S. M., & Schmidt, L. J. (2020) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/c4kg6w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Case for Animal Spirituality—Part 1
Cunningham, P. F. (2022) · Journal for the Study of Religion Nature and Culture · doi:10.1558/jsrnc.18801 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
WILL WE KNOW THEM WHEN WE MEET THEM? HUMAN CYBORG AND NONHUMAN PERSONHOOD
Turner, L. (2023) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/zygo.12923 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Getting It Together: Psychological Unity and Deflationary Accounts of Animal Metacognition
Comstock, G., & Bauer, W. A. (2018) · Acta Analytica · doi:10.1007/s12136-018-0340-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Post-Darwin skepticism and run-of-the-mill suicide
Hadley, J. (2018) · Animal Sentience · doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1299 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
On the Genesis, Continuum, and the Lowest Bound of Selves
Joy, R. (2024) · JOLMA · doi:10.30687/jolma/2723-9640/2023/02/006 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Palgrave Handbook of Practical Animal Ethics
Rossi, J. P. (2022) · Journal of Animal Ethics · doi:10.5406/21601267.12.1.11 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The expressive case for animal self-consciousness
Rodríguez, Á. (2023) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-023-09899-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Media, Myth, and the “Fighting Whale” In Maritime Narratives
Dowling, D. O. (2014) · Genre · doi:10.1215/00166928-2797177 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Benvenuti, A. (2016) · Ethics Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jemep.2016.10.005 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Animal Understanding and Animal Self-Awareness
Woodford, P. J. (2023) · Interdisciplinary evolution research · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-30304-3_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
What Is Morally Wrong with Killing Animals (if This Does not Involve Suffering)?
Naconecy, C. (2018) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-36671-9_18 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0001 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
On the margins: personhood and moral status in marginal cases of human rights
Ryland, H. (2020) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Animal Ethics and Autonomy, Agency and Selfhood
Thomas, N. E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23514-1_1254-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Our Own Minds: Sociocultural Grounds for Self-Consciousness
Arango‐Muñoz, S. (2011) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2011.633698 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Batisti, F. (2023) · JOLMA · doi:10.30687/jolma/2723-9640/2023/02 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A TESTIMONIUM ON PROCLUS’ VIEWS ABOUT THE RATIONALITY OF ANIMALS
Gertz, S. (2018) · The Classical Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0009838818000113
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0008
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0003
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0010
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0009
Pre-Intentional Awareness of Self
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0007
Animals as Persons and Why It Matters
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0011
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0002
Identifying Community Access to Veterinary Services in Southern Dallas
O'Neill, S. J. (2019) · doi:10.12794/metadc1538804
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0004
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0006
Rowlands, M. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190846039.003.0005
Vidalis, T. (2022) · Springer textbooks in law · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-02359-0_15
Gennaro, R. J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55065-7_1611
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0005
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.002.0004
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.002.0007
Explanation, Mechanism, and Function
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0006
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0008
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.002.0006
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0009
Attitude Ascriptions and Frege’s Curse
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0002
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0003
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0007
Representational Acts and Implicit Attitudes
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0004
Unnsteinsson, E. G. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.003.0001
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192865137.002.0003
Subject and object: The mirror of modernity
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0004
Matter and spirit: The great illusion
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0005
Reunifying knowledge of body and mind
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0010
Homo sapiens, a species among many others . . . but not quite like the others
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0002
Building a social and economic order that serves life
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0011
A brief history of the divorce between humans and nature
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0003
Recovering nature in us through our fundamental needs
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0009
The underside of economic rationality and progress
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0006
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0008
Loreau, M. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.002.0003
Embracing life that flows through us
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0012
Journey to the center of the modern world
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0007
Loreau, M. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197628430.003.0001
Animal Ethics and Autonomy, Agency and Selfhood
Thomas, N. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22767-8_1254
Human and Non-Human Consciousness: Do They Share Common Characteristics?
Koumparoudi, E. (2023) · RUDN Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.22363/2313-2302-2023-27-4-888-900
Attention, awareness, and consciousness
Jansson-Boyd, C. V., & Bright, P. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13581-1.00007-8
- Authors
- DeGrazia, D.
- Affiliations
- George Washington University (US)
- Corresponding author
- DeGrazia, David
- ORCID
- DeGrazia, David
- Venue
- The Philosophy of Animal Minds
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2009-09-03
- Pages
- 201-217
- OpenAlex
- W1630360875
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.21
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Keywords
- animal self-awareness, mirror self-recognition, propositional attitudes, intentional action, body awareness, animal preferences, animal cognition, tool use, problem solving, fear, persistence of the self
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
