The DOI matches its Crossref record; 19 of the 22 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Democracy and Depression: A Cross-National Study of Depressive Symptoms and Nonparticipation
Abstract
Depression is the most common mental health disorder. It has consequences not only on individuals but also on social and political levels. We argue that depressive symptoms impair political participation by reducing the motivation and physical energy of sufferers. We test our hypotheses by conducting regression analyses of four nationally representative cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys that collectively span many democracies. Our results are threefold. First, we find that the severest depressive symptoms lower the probability of voting by 0.05–0.25 points, an effect that is exceeded only by education and age. Second, we show that depressive symptoms negatively affect political interest and internal efficacy, thereby confirming that they diminish political motivation. Third, we find that depressive symptoms most strongly affect physically demanding acts, thereby confirming that they reduce the physical energy required for participation. We conclude by urging scholars to take depressive symptoms seriously in the study of political behavior.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“First, Landwehr and Ojeda (2021) show that, across four countries, depressive symptoms substantially reduce the probability of voting by diminishing political motivation and physical energy (also see Ojeda, 2015, Ojeda & Pacheco, 2019).”
From How to study democratic backsliding (2024) · cites this paper as Landwehr and Ojeda (2021)
Citations
Cites
The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
Radloff, L. S. (1977) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662167700100306 · Cited by 53,267
TARGET ARTICLE: "Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence"
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01 · Cited by 7,154
The increasing burden of depression
Briley, M., & Lépine (2011) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s19617 · Cited by 1,297
Reciprocal Effects of Participation and Political Efficacy: A Panel Analysis
Finkel, S. E. (1985) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111186 · Cited by 812
Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence
Hidaka, B. H. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.036 · Cited by 769
You’ve Either Got It or You Don’t? The Stability of Political Interest over the Life Cycle
Prior, M. (2010) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381610000149 · Cited by 588
Measuring attitudes cross-nationally : lessons from the European social survey
Jowell, R. M. (2007) · Cited by 456
Vecchione, M., & Caprara, G. V. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.11.021 · Cited by 369
Measuring Attitudes Cross-Nationally
Jowell, R. M., Roberts, C., Fitzgerald, R., & Eva, G. (2007) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781849209458 · Cited by 224
Depression and self-focused attention
Smith, T. W., & Greenberg, J. (1981) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992551 · Cited by 188
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- 2018, British Household Panel Survey: Waves 1–18, 1991–2009
- Tedeschi, 2004, Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence, An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory, 15, 1
- 2013, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- 2013, The Global Burden of Disease
- Verba, 1996, Voice and Equality
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Down But Not Yet Out: Depression, Political Efficacy, and Voting
Bernardi, L., Mattila, M., Papageorgiou, A., & Rapeli, L. (2022) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12837 · Cited by 87
The Political Economy of Health: Bringing Political Science In
Lynch, J. F. (2023) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051120-103015 · Cited by 66
How to study democratic backsliding
Druckman, J. N. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12942 · Cited by 56
Bækgaard, M., Herd, P., & Moynihan, D. P. (2022) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s000712342200031x · Cited by 40
Santana, A., Rama, J., & Bértoa, F. C. (2020) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/3d4ny · Cited by 39
Does Health Vulnerability Predict Voting for Right-Wing Populist Parties in Europe?
Kavanagh, N. M., Menon, A., & Heinze, J. E. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421000265 · Cited by 36
Disability and Political Representation
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.001.0001 · Cited by 36
Baum, M. A., Druckman, J. N., Simonson, M. D., Lin, J., & Perlis, R. H. (2024) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12827 · Cited by 31
Elections have (health) consequences: Depression, anxiety, and the 2020 presidential election
Mukhopadhyay, S. (2022) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101191 · Cited by 29
Mental Health and Political Representation: A Roadmap
Bernardi, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2020.587588 · Cited by 33
COVID-19 stressors, mental/emotional distress and political support
Bernardi, L., & Gotlib, I. H. (2022) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2022.2055372 · Cited by 23
Healthy citizens, healthy democracies? A review of the literature
Gidengil, E., & Wass, H. (2023) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/01925121231163548 · Cited by 22
Menon, A., Kavanagh, N. M., Falkenbach, M., Wismar, M., & Greer, S. L. (2025) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2025.101326 · Cited by 27
A cognitive model of depression and political attitudes
Bernardi, L., Sala, G., & Gotlib, I. H. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102737 · Cited by 14
Luca, G. D. D., & Lin, X. Y. (2024) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2024.105009 · Cited by 11
Girard, L., & Okolikj, M. (2023) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-022-09852-9 · Cited by 10
Physical health conditions and political participation in Europe: the moderating effects of age
Kirbiš, A., Mattila, M., & Rapeli, L. (2023) · Comparative European Politics · doi:10.1057/s41295-023-00347-3 · Cited by 9
Bayesian Rule Set: A Quantitative Alternative to Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Chiu, A., & Xu, Y. (2020) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/720791 · Cited by 11
The Politics of Personal Crisis: How Life Disruptions Shape Political Participation
Ojeda, C., Michener, J., & Haselswerdt, J. (2024) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-024-09933-x · Cited by 15
Self-citationPrati, G. (2024) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13440 · Cited by 7
Depression and the gender gap in political interest
Ojeda, C., Bernardi, L., & Landwehr, C. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102598 · Cited by 8
Self-citationAngry and afraid: emotional drivers of protest for abortion rights in Poland
Blackington, C. (2023) · East European Politics · doi:10.1080/21599165.2023.2180733 · Cited by 8
Depressive rumination and political engagement
Bernardi, L., Gotlib, I., & Bernardi, F. (2023) · Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2023.2246371 · Cited by 6
Misperceptions, Depression, and Voting for Election Deniers in the United States
Baum, M., Druckman, J. N., Ognyanova, K., & Schulman, J. (2024) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edae024 · Cited by 5
Ortlund, K., Chandler, M., Lin, B., Anastario, M. P., & Eick, S. M. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.117800 · Cited by 7
Governing in an Age of Distrust
Weinberg, J. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.001.0001 · Cited by 7
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0001 · Cited by 6
Citizen journalism: Revisiting the concept and developments
Min, S. J., Salgado, S., & Mutsvairo, B. (2025) · Journalism · doi:10.1177/14648849251327003 · Cited by 5
ADHD and political participation: An observational study
Waismel-Manor, I., Kaplan, Y. R., Shenhav, S. R., Zlotnik, Y., Dvir-Gvirsman, S., & Ifergane, G. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280445 · Cited by 5
Li, J., Giebler, H., Wetter, R., Lair, H. K., & Ellingwood, J. (2022) · European Journal of Politics and Gender · doi:10.1332/251510821x16602019188175 · Cited by 5
Ahlskog, R., Dawes, C., Oskarsson, S., & Weinschenk, A. C. (2025) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-025-10020-y · Cited by 7
Okolikj, M., & Girard, L. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13083 · Cited by 4
Perceived social contribution and its associations with political participation
Reinhart, E. C., Turner, M. M., Markowitz, D. M., & Carnahan, D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0330385 · Cited by 4
Voter attitudes and politicians with health conditions and disabilities
Magni, G., & Reynolds, A. (2024) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13451 · Cited by 4
Ostracism as a threat to modern democracies: Evidence from 11 European countries
Bogatyreva, N., Albath, E. A., & Greifeneder, R. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13046 · Cited by 5
Roseman, I. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2025.1570686 · Cited by 4
Not in the mood for party: Symptoms of depression reduce the weight of partisanship on vote choice
Bernardi, L., Rico, G., & Anduiza, E. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13064 · Cited by 3
Centering LGBTQ+ Political Behavior in Political Science
Egan, P. J. (2025) · PS Political Science & Politics · doi:10.1017/s1049096524001288 · Cited by 4
Mixed evidence for a relationship of cognitive fatigue to political engagement
Hjermitslev, I. B., & Johnston, C. D. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102621 · Cited by 4
A quiet and invisible challenge: Depressive symptoms and the evaluation of democratic institutions
Landwehr, C., Ojeda, C., & Weingärtner, P. (2025) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2025.102928 · Cited by 3
Self-citationBaum, M., Druckman, J. N., Simonson, M. D., Lin, J. A.-J., & Perlis, R. H. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/tnfj7 · Cited by 3
Tellez, J., & Balcells, L. (2022) · World Bank policy research working paper · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-10019 · Cited by 4
The gendered long‐term consequences of automation risk on electoral behaviour: Evidence from Norway
Bratsberg, B., Finseraas, H., Langsæther, P. E., & Røgeberg, O. J. (2025) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.70010 · Cited by 2
Bernardi, L., Mattila, M., Papageorgiou, A., & Rapeli, L. (2025) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.1017/pls.2025.10004 · Cited by 3
Bradshaw, M., Shiba, K., Jang, S. J., Kent, B. V., Bonhag, R., Johnson, B. R., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2026) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-025-01366-9 · Cited by 9
Health Status and Political Corruption: a Comparative Study
Peterson, S. A. (2021) · Reality of Politics · doi:10.15804/rop2021409 · Cited by 2
The Distrust Stressor in Political Office
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0007 · Cited by 2
Psychological distress and voting behaviour in nine countries of the former Soviet Union
Stickley, A., Sumiyoshi, T., Kondo, N., Leinsalu, M., Inoue, Y., Ruchkin, V. V., Shin, J. I., & McKee, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-49071-8 · Cited by 2
Kavanagh, N. M., & Menon, A. (2024) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfae062 · Cited by 2
Psychiatry’s Obligation to Promote Voting Among Patients With Mental Illness
Graziane, J. A., Ghahramani, A., Bowen, J. L., Horton, S., Swigart, A. R., Kunkel, E. J. S., & Dalke, K. B. (2023) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.20230006 · Cited by 2
Thompson, O. P., Hall, J., Hecker, T., & Walsh, J. I. (2023) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2277505 · Cited by 4
Tellez, J., & Balcells, L. (2024) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027241253532 · Cited by 4
Despair and Voter Turnout in the United States
Franko, W. W., & Pacheco, J. (2024) · Journal of Health Politics Policy and Law · doi:10.1215/03616878-11670168 · Cited by 1
Mental Health and Immigrant Perceptions of Inclusion
Chapa, S., & Cortina, J. (2025) · Psychology International · doi:10.3390/psycholint7020035 · Cited by 1
Ray, S., Patil, A. M., Vidya, K. S., & Semetko, H. A. (2025) · Journal of Public Policy · doi:10.1017/s0143814x25100688 · Cited by 1
Kröner, L., Mazrekaj, D., van der Lippe, T., & Poortman, A. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118527 · Cited by 1
Silent suffering: Depression, perceived inequality, and political trust
Chen, X., & Shen, X. (2025) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/20531680251374167 · Cited by 1
Depression, Populism, and Presidential Approval
Baum, M., Druckman, J. N., Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., & Perlis, R. H. (2025) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edaf050 · Cited by 1
Wellbeing: Alternative Policy Perspectives
Besley, T., & Bucelli, I. (2022) · LSE Press eBooks · doi:10.31389/lsepress.well · Cited by 3
Empowering Psychiatric Inpatients to Vote: Perceptions of Voting and the Barriers Encountered
Graziane, J. A., Dalke, K. B., Swigart, A. R., Pradhan, S., Zhu, J., Laux, T., Mikoluk, C., Miller, C. J., Luther, J., & Kunkel, E. J. S. (2024) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-024-01241-2 · Cited by 1
Voting propensity and parental depression
Bernardi, L., Bridger, E. K., & Mattila, M. (2024) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102800 · Cited by 1
Cognitive Resilience Under Stress: A Tradeoff Between Mental Well-being and MobilizationPreprint
Baker, M. N., & Denny, E. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2gmdy · Cited by 1
Extortion and Civic Engagement among Guatemalan Deportees
Denny, E. K., Dow, D., Levy, G., & Villamizar-Chaparro, M. (2022) · World Bank policy research working paper · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-10020
Girard, L., & Okolikj, M. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/ru456
Political Movements and Mental Health: Evidence from the Anti-Corruption Campaign in ChinaPreprint
Fu, J., & Zhou, C. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4161190
Okolikj, M., & Girard, L. (2023) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/qfgva
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.005.0005
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.005.0001
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.005.0003
Principals and Agents: How Trusted do Politicians Feel?
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0003
Psychological Covariates of Politicians’ Trust Perceptions
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0005
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.002.0004
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.005.0002
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.002.0008
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0008
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.002.0007
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.005.0004
A Typology of Political Trustees
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0004
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0001
Reflexive Practitioners? A Qualitative Assessment
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0002
Under Pressure? The Link between Politicians’ Trust Perceptions and Behaviour in Office
Weinberg, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.003.0006
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900740.002.0003
Ableist Institutions, Barriers, and Lived Experiences of Representation
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0005
Code of Interviewees and Interview Date
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.005.0001
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.002.0006
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.005.0003
Representing the Preferences of Disabled People?
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0007
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.002.0003
Rethinking Political Representation
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0002 · Cited by 1
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.005.0002
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0009
Voting Rights and Political Participation
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0003 · Cited by 1
Political Parties, Accessibility and Political Recruitment
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0004
Experiential Representation and Disabled People’s Interests
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0008
Disabled Candidates and Voter Perceptions
Evans, E., & Reher, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859761.003.0006
Non-medical factors of public health in the context of the post-pandemic world
Oliinyk, S. Y. (2024) · Politicus · doi:10.24195/2414-9616.2024-3.14
Student Loan Debt and Participation in American National Elections
Macdonald, D. (2025) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129251331004
Pandemics and Elections: Estimating the Net Effect of Pandemic Partisan Retrospection
Hwang, N. S., Chang, H., Chatterjee, S., Di, Y., & Bhattacharyya, S. (2025) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129251346188
Girard, L., Okolikj, M., Hysing, M., & Sivertsen, B. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100519
Kirbiš, A., & Lubej, M. (2025) · Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies · doi:10.1080/14683857.2025.2576290
Metadata
- Authors
- LANDWEHR, C., & OJEDA, C.
- Affiliations
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- University of Tennessee at Knoxville (US)
- Corresponding author
- LANDWEHR, CLAUDIA
- OJEDA, CHRISTOPHER
- Venue
- American Political Science Review
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2020-10-19
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 323-330
- ISSN
- 0003-0554 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5943
- OpenAlex
- W3094416646
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 44.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Political Science Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Keywords
- depressive symptoms, depression, political participation, voting behavior, political interest, internal political efficacy, political motivation, physical energy, democracy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review