Conquering the Past: Post-War Archaeology and Nationalism in the Borderlands of Chile and Peru, c. 1880–1920

Patriotic folk songs, poems, and slogans reified Peruvian national identity through references to the homeland and the Andean or Incan pre-Hispanic past.

“Patriotic folk songs, poems, and slogans reified Peruvian national identity through references to the homeland and the Andean or Incan pre-Hispanic past. 34”

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Throughout the first half of the twentieth century the Uhle collection of textiles and mummies constituted the largest and most significant part of the pre-Hispanic section of the National Historical Museum.

“It was separated from the National Museum in 1911 and throughout the first half of the twentieth century the Uhle collection of textiles and mummies constituted the largest and most significant part of the pre-Hispanic section.”

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The archaeological activity in the territories reached an unprecedented climax in the 1910s.

“The archaeological activity in the territories reached an unprecedented climax in the 1910s.”

The principal task of the scholars involved in the state-based expeditions with an archaeological focus was to take back to Santiago as many samples of ancient artifacts as they could find, buy, or excavate.

“The principle task of the scholars involved in the state-based expeditions with an archaeological focus was to take back to Santiago as many samples of ancient artifacts as they could find, buy, or excavate.”

Only after the 1910s did the vast majority of the archaeological material in the Ethnological and Anthropological Museum derive from Chilean territory, either the annexed regions in the North, the Araucania, Tierra del Fuego, or the Easter Islands.

“Only after the 1910s did the vast majority of the archaeological material in the Ethnological and Anthropological Museum derive from Chilean territory, either the annexed regions in the North, the Araucanı ´a, Tierra del Fuego, or the Easter Islands.”

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The second stage of the appropriation process was systematically sending expeditions to the new territories.

“The second stage of the appropriation process was systematically sending expeditions to the new territories.”

The discrimination and expulsion of Peruvians from the area during that period became systematic and violent, as part of attempts to win the territories for Chile.

“The discrimination and expulsion of Peruvians from the area during that period became systematic and violent, as part of attempts to win the territories for Chile. 33”

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In 1912 the Chilean government hired Max Uhle to work in the annexed territories.

“In 1912 the Chilean government hired 'one of the most competent Americanists of the time,' the German archaeologist Max Uhle, to work in the annexed territories.”

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The first Chilean scientific expedition after the official annexation focused primarily on Tarapaca.

“The first Chilean scientific expedition after the official annexation focused primarily on Tarapaca ´.”

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Principally, Philippi was engaged in gathering archaeological artifacts he could take back to the National Museum.

“Principally, however, Philippi was engaged in gathering archaeological artifacts he could take back to the National Museum.”

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The North provided the majority of the artifacts in archaeological museums and museum sections in Santiago.

“the North provided the majority of the artifacts in archaeological museums and museum sections in Santiago.”

The indigenous legacy was at the core of Peruvian nationalist propaganda aimed at reviving in the annexed regions patriotic feelings of belonging.

“The indigenous legacy was at the core of Peruvian nationalist propaganda aimed at reviving in the annexed regions patriotic feelings of belonging.”

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In 1929, the Ethnographic and Anthropological Museum ceased to be an autonomous institution and was reintegrated into the National Historical Museum.

“In 1929, the year of the plebiscite in which the annexation of Tarapaca ´ was finally approved and the incorporation of Arica and the loss of Tacna sealed, the Ethnographic and Anthropological Museum ceased to be an autonomous institution and was reintegrated into the National Historical Museum.”

Also reaching the National Museum in Santiago were objects from the new Greater North gathered by individuals.

“Also reaching the National Museum in Santiago were objects from the new Greater North gathered by individuals.”

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Archaeology figured prominently in all expeditions sent to the three provinces, both the more general ones investigating their economic potential or population and the narrowly speaking 'scientific ones.'

“Archaeology figured prominently in all expeditions sent to the three provinces, both the more general ones investigating their economic potential or population and the, narrowly speaking, 'scientific ones.'”

The first stage of archaeological appropriation was set before the effective end of the War of the Pacific.

“The first stage of archaeological appropriation was set before the effective end of the War of the Pacific.”

Jose Toribio Medina was a central figure among the donors to the National Museum.

“The central figure among the donors was Jose ´ Toribio Medina.”

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Philippi reported back observations of pre-Hispanic edifices, geoglyphs, and infrastructure-remains that could not be moved.

“Philippi reported back to the Ministry of Education observations of pre-Hispanic edifices, geoglyphs, and infrastructure-remains that could not be moved.”

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The Uhle collection was so massive that it had to be divided between Santiago institutions.

“The collection was so massive that it had to be divided between Santiago institutions.”

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People in Tacna voiced a refusal to explicitly state their national belonging, in part through the discourse of archaeology.

“People in Tacna voiced a refusal to explicitly state their national belonging, in part through the discourse of archaeology.”

Some of these collections contained large numbers of artifacts from the formerly Peruvian provinces, such as the Bruning collection with its hundreds of objects from Arica.

“Some of these contained large numbers of artifacts from the formerly Peruvian provinces, such as the Bru ¨ning collection with its hundreds of objects from Arica. 39”

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At the 1901 Buffalo Exposition Chile presented a tiny yet significant archaeological section.

“At the 1901 Buffalo Exposition it presented a tiny yet significant archaeological section.”

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Tacna's status in the 1910s was, like that of Arica, far less certain and more 'negotiable' than Tarapaca's.

“Tacna's status in the 1910s was, like that of Arica, far less certain and more 'negotiable' than Tarapaca ´'s.”

In the 1910s, the decade in which the struggle over the provinces intensified, members of the local elite opened regional museums with archaeological holdings.

“In the 1910s, the decade in which the struggle over the provinces intensified, members of the local elite opened regional museums with archaeological holdings.”

The population in the occupied regions had long retained artifacts from the local cultural space within substantial private collections.

“The population in the occupied regions had long retained artifacts from the local cultural space within substantial private collections. 47”

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In his writings Cuneo-Vidal incorporated the occupied provinces into the Peruvian historical and archaeological record by claiming that, historically, the territories in the Arica area remained a part and prolongation of Peruvian territory.

“In his writings he incorporated the occupied provinces into the Peruvian historical and archaeological record by claiming that, historically, the territories in the Arica area remained a part and prolongation of Peruvian territory. 40”

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Peruvian journals continued to publish archaeological articles by 'neutral' scholars, such as Max Uhle, who had free access to the 'captive provinces.'

“However, Peruvian journals continued to publish archaeological articles by 'neutral' scholars, such as Max Uhle, who had free access to the 'captive provinces.'”

The museum of Tacna, founded in 1911 on the initiative of the region's Chilean intendant Vicente Dagnino, presented a vision of the region in terms of its geological and material characteristics, most importantly its archaeological remains and mineralogical resources.

“The museum of Tacna, founded in 1911 on the initiative of the region's Chilean intendant Vicente Dagnino, presented a vision of the region in terms of its geological and material characteristics, most importantly its archaeological remains and mineralogical resources.”

When the Chilean government hired Max Uhle in 1912, it gained the services of one of the most prestigious and cosmopolitan members of the international archaeological community.

“When the Chilean government hired Max Uhle in 1912, it gained the services of one of the most prestigious and cosmopolitan members of the international archaeological community.”

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The Chilean elites claimed Chile was capable of participating in the 'concert of nations' as an equal of the industrialized countries, through the acquisition of cultural capital.

“The elites claimed Chile was capable of participating in the 'concert of nations' as an equal of the industrialized countries, through the acquisition of cultural capital.”

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The Chilean occupation was depicted as an offence against ancestral borderlines established by maps of ethnic belonging and the frontiers of pre-Hispanic and colonial history.

“The Chilean occupation was depicted as an offence against ancestral borderlines established by maps of ethnic belonging and the frontiers of pre-Hispanic and colonial history. 35”

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Rather than focusing on educational activities or attracting visitors to their museums, Chilean archaeologists were principally engaged in the manufacture of scientific knowledge and its dissemination to a select group of educated professionals around the world.

“Rather than focusing on educational activities or attracting visitors to their museums, Chilean archaeologists were principally engaged in the manufacture of scientific knowledge and its dissemination to a select group of educated professionals around the world.”

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Despite the theoretically permanent annexation of Tarapaca, Peruvian nationalist discourse reclaimed it, like Arica and Tacna, as a 'captive province.'

“Yet despite the theoretically permanent annexation of Tarapaca ´, Peruvian nationalist discourse reclaimed it, like Arica and Tacna, as a 'captive province.' 54”

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The Peruvian Government acquired a number of private collections during the principal phase of the institutionalization of archaeology in the 1910s and 1920s.

“The Peruvian Government acquired a number of private collections during the principal phase of the institutionalization of archaeology in the 1910s and 1920s.”

Chilean scholars began to participate in international archaeological debates only from the late 1880s onwards.

“As noted, Chilean scholars began to participate in international archaeological debates only from the late 1880s onwards.”

As with the Tacnenos, Tarapaquenos expressed their borderland identity by founding a museum.

“As with the Tacnen ˜os, Tarapaquen ˜os expressed their borderland identity by founding a museum.”

Excavation in the occupied territories was closed off to Peruvian scholars, and was now the exclusive privilege of Chilean archaeologists.

“Excavation in the occupied territories was closed off to Peruvian scholars, and was now the exclusive privilege of Chilean archaeologists.”

Archaeological agency in the borderlands was not contextualized within institutional spaces, which were during this period mostly created by the central state.

“As with German regionalist antiquarians or British county societies, archaeological agency in the borderlands was not contextualized within institutional spaces, which were during this period mostly created by the central state. 46”

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The evidence gathered here indicates that the regional archaeological interest was characteristic of the blurred and hybrid realm created in the borderlands, outside the agency of Chile or Peru.

“The evidence gathered here indicates that, on the contrary, the regional archaeological interest was characteristic of the blurred and hybrid realm created in the borderlands, outside the agency of Chile or Peru.”

Throughout this period, Peruvian historians participated in the reclamation of the area by inserting it into the Peruvian national historical narrative.

“Throughout this period, Peruvian historians participated in the reclamation of the area by inserting it into the Peruvian national historical narrative.”

Before the 1880s, when Chile defined the nation at exhibitions archaeological artifacts were virtually absent.

“Before the 1880s, when Chile defined the nation at exhibitions archaeological artifacts were virtually absent.”

Particularly in the 1910s, Chilean pressure to erase Peruvian national identity was most intense and violent in Tarapaca.

“Particularly in the 1910s, Chilean pressure to erase Peruvian national identity was most intense and violent in Tarapaca ´. 55”

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The archaeological investigation of the indigenous legacy in the North did not indicate a change in the Chilean stance; indigenous ethnicities there remained insignificant to Chilean national identity until long after the 1920s.

“The archaeological investigation of the indigenous legacy in the North did not indicate a change in the Chilean stance; indigenous ethnicities there remained insignificant to Chilean national identity, and would until long after the 1920s.”

Dagnino was named an honorary member of the Peruvian Geographical Society and the Peruvian Historical Institute in Lima because of the contributions his historical and archaeological studies had made to Arica's history.

“Most remarkably, he was named an honorary member of the Peruvian Geographical Society and the Peruvian Historical Institute in Lima because of the contributions his historical and archaeological studies had made to Arica's history. 50”

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The general Chilean policy toward the Aymara and Atacameño peoples was one of negation, integration, and assimilation.

“Instead, the general policy was one of negation, integration, and assimilation of the Aymara and Atacamen ˜o peoples.”

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The Chilean government and society displayed no social awareness linked with scientific interest.

“The Chilean government and society displayed no social awareness linked with scientific interest.”

During the period in which Chile was incorporating the new territories economically and socially, Chilean scholars and the international scientific community alike were acutely aware of the significance of the Greater North for finding solutions to contemporary archaeological problems.

“During the period in which Chile was incorporating the new territories economically and socially, Chilean scholars and the international scientific community alike were acutely aware of the significance of the Greater North for finding solutions to contemporary archaeological problems.”

The conquest of Peruvian territory went hand in hand with the confiscation of cultural resources.

“As in other cases of political expansion, the conquest of Peruvian territory went hand in hand with the confiscation of cultural resources.”

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Through the conquest of Arica, Tacna, and Tarapaca, anthropology and archaeology were no longer tangential or circumstantial activities; they became a scientific preoccupation with political importance.

“Through the conquest of Arica, Tacna, and Tarapaca ´, anthropology and archaeology were no longer tangential or circumstantial activities; they became a scientific preoccupation with political importance.”

Medina's interest in the annexed territories was important in the process of incorporating the North into the national historical record.

“His interest in the annexed territories was important in the process of incorporating the North into the national historical record.”

The Chilean attempt to erase the institutions that produced and preserved the collective memory of Peru was a key part of sealing the victory.

“The Chilean attempt to erase the institutions that produced and preserved the collective memory of Peru was a key part of sealing the victory.”

Chile's intellectual and physical appropriation of the archaeological record in Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica did not remain unchallenged.

“Chile's intellectual and physical appropriation of the archaeological record in Tarapaca ´, Tacna, and Arica did not remain unchallenged.”

The collecting of indigenous artifacts in the previously Peruvian territories represented a 'proof of conquest, proprietorship, and ultimately incorporation.'

“The collecting of indigenous artifacts in the previously Peruvian territories represented a 'proof of conquest, proprietorship, and ultimately incorporation.'”

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As in the case of the U.S.-American 'lure of the Southwest'-the annexed Mexican territories after 1880-the collecting was part of a process of regional definition.

“As in the case of the U.S.-American 'lure of the Southwest'-the annexed Mexican territories after 1880-the collecting was part of a process of regional definition.”

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Beyond being a symbolic incorporation, the annexation literally supplied Chilean archaeological research with a material base.

“But beyond being a symbolic incorporation, the annexation literally supplied Chilean archaeological research with a material base.”

Archaeological exploration in its entirety was not a purposeful plan, a concerted attempt organized by the central state.

“I highlight this pattern here to argue that archaeological exploration in its entirety was not a purposeful plan, a concerted attempt organized by the central state.”

The process of transferring archaeological artifacts from Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica to Chile's cultural institutions between the 1880s and the 1910s helped political incorporation on a symbolic level.

“the process of transferring archaeological artifacts from Tarapaca ´, Tacna, and Arica to Chile's cultural institutions between the 1880s and the 1910s helped political incorporation on a symbolic level.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The association of the nation with a specific visual representation and a determined historical trajectory is characteristic of countries from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries under the impact of the European paradigm.

The immediate impact of the annexation of Tarapaca in 1884 marked the intended cultural, political, and social appropriation of the region.

“The immediate impact of the annexation of Tarapaca ´ in 1884 marked the intended cultural, political, and social appropriation of the region.”

To amass archaeological artifacts from the North and take them to Santiago helped define these territories as no longer Peruvian.

“To amass archaeological artifacts from the North and take them to Santiago helped define these territories as no longer Peruvian.”

Findings with practical implications were a secondary goal of the archaeological explorations.

“Yet findings with practical implications were a secondary goal of the archaeological explorations.”

The removal of Peruvian archaeological remains involved much more than a transfer of bones and shards.

“The removal of Peruvian archaeological remains involved much more than a transfer of bones and shards.”

As Chile displayed Peruvian objects in its National Museum and incorporated them into its own archaeological record, what had been Peruvian prehistory became part of Chile's scientific record and national imaginary.

“As Chile displayed Peruvian objects in its National Museum and incorporated them into its own archaeological record, what had been Peruvian prehistory became part of Chile's scientific record and national imaginary.”

By incorporating into the National Museum the archaeological remains gathered in the first expedition, the objects were re-contextualized within the symbolic framework of the Chilean nation.

“By incorporating into the National Museum the archaeological remains gathered in the first expedition, the objects were re-contextualized within the symbolic framework of the Chilean nation.”

Archaeology was a fundamental tool in the production and shaping of national historical imaginaries.

“As a discipline devoted to processing evidence of the past, archaeology was a fundamental tool in the production and shaping of national historical imaginaries.”

The concordance of state-based archaeological expeditions, supported by private Chilean initiatives and politics, is evident in the institutional development of museum projects.

“The concordance of state-based archaeological expeditions, supported by private Chilean initiatives and politics is similarly evident in the institutional development of the museum projects.”

Nineteenth-century Latin American nation-states, like their European counterparts, utilized images as depositories and instruments of state power.

“Nineteenth-century Latin American nation-states, like their European counterparts, utilized images as depositories and instruments of state power.”

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Archaeology suited the purpose of making comprehensive, visible, and controllable unknown and seemingly indomitable environments.

“It suited the purpose of making comprehensive, visible, and controllable unknown and seemingly indomitable environments.”

The archaeological peculiarity of the Greater North gave Chilean scholars the means to participate in archaeological debates; for them it was the 'missing link' through which to approach a scientific community not easily accessible to non-'Western' scholars.

“The archaeological peculiarity of what had become the Greater North gave Chilean scholars the means to participate in archaeological debates; for them it was the 'missing link' through which to approach a scientific community not easily accessible to non-'Western' scholars.”

The particularity of the North's archaeological record and the knowledge already available made the area a perfect setting for an influential scientific project.

“The particularity of its archaeological record and the knowledge already available made the area a perfect setting for an influential scientific project.”

In the dynamic process of opposing or adopting measures directed from the 'centers,' the borderland actors developed a local identity anchored in the history and the endogenous environment of the provinces.

“In the dynamic process of opposing or adopting measures directed from the 'centers,' the borderland actors developed a local identity anchored in the history and the endogenous environment of the provinces.”

The archaeological exploration of the Greater North helped position the Chilean nation-state within the international community of modern nations.

“The archaeological exploration of the Greater North thus helped position the Chilean nation-state within the international community of modern nations.”

In the nineteenth century, the emergence of social evolutionism rendered the preserved remains of ancient 'primitive' peoples all the more important to scholarly debates.

“In the nineteenth century, the emergence of social evolutionism rendered the preserved remains of ancient 'primitive' peoples all the more important to scholarly debates.”

By placing objects in the service of the modern nation and in the context of imperial encounters, international expositions yoked cultural material to politics.

“By placing objects in the service of the modern nation and in the context of imperial encounters, international expositions yoked cultural material to politics.”

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Science was a form of capital, a valuable currency embodying prestige and power because it was a form of rationality and modernity then identified as exclusively and inherently European.

“Science was a form of capital, a valuable currency embodying prestige and power because it was a form of rationality and modernity then identified as exclusively and inherently European.”

The archaeological record of the North was worthy of study only because it enabled Chile to build up a prestigious discipline.

“The archaeological record of the North was worthy of study only because it enabled Chile to build up a prestigious discipline.”

Archaeology came to play a prominent role in the formation of a borderland identity.

“Archaeology came to play a prominent role in the formation of a borderland identity.”

The extraordinary archaeological quality of materials in the North justified the employment of foreign specialists.

“The extraordinary archaeological quality of materials in the North also justified the employment of foreign specialists.”

The discipline was founded in Chile in pursuit of an agenda of national progress, not from a desire to explore the area's indigenous legacy.

“And, examining the discipline from the angle of a critical history of archaeology, one that allows for the politicized nature of science, reveals that the discipline was founded in Chile in pursuit of an agenda of national progress, not from a desire to explore the area's indigenous legacy.”

Chile's modernization was at the core of the country's nationalist discourse.

“Chile's modernization was at the core of the country's nationalist discourse.”

The underlying message was that the annexed area could not but belong ethnically and culturally to the Peruvian nation, the legitimate successor of this past.

“The underlying message was that the annexed area could not but belong ethnically and culturally to the Peruvian nation, the legitimate successor of this past.”

International expositions like the pan-American ones were for emerging states like Chile a significant forum for self-representation.

“International expositions like the pan-American ones were for emerging states like Chile a significant forum for self-representation.”

In several Latin American countries, particularly Peru and Mexico, creoles after independence positioned themselves rather than the indigenous masses as the inheritors of the pre-Hispanic past.

“In several Latin American countries, particularly Peru and Mexico, creoles in their discursive construction of the nation after independence positioned themselves-rather than the indigenous masses-as the inheritors of the pre-Hispanic past.”

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Archaeology was one means to improve Chile's poor image in the United States at the Buffalo Exposition.

“Archaeology was one means to this end.”

To publish a work on Arica in the Revista Historica, the main organ of Peruvian national history, in the year in which negotiations over Arica reached another climax, was a political statement.

“To publish a work on Arica in the latter journal, the main organ of Peruvian national history, in the year in which negotiations over Arica reached another climax, 38 was a political statement.”

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Archaeology played a significant role in the Chilean annexation of Peruvian territories.

“Archaeology played a significant role in the Chilean annexation of Peruvian territories.”

Chilean archaeology would have been unthinkable without its territorial expansion into formerly Peruvian territory.

“In the same way, Chilean archaeology would have been unthinkable without its territorial expansion into formerly Peruvian territory.”

Like Tacna's museum, the Iquique one was grounded in a local identity with the area's material conditions, its prehistory and geology.

“Like Tacna's museum, the Iquique one was grounded in a local identity with the area's material conditions, its prehistory and geology.”

Archaeological sections in the national pavilions displayed a country's scientific mastery of its territory as its historical record.

“Archaeological sections in the national pavilions displayed a country's scientific mastery of its territory as its historical record.”

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Former colonies believed their pathway to autonomous statehood required science: a modern, independent nation needed to have a national science.

“former colonies believed their pathway to autonomous statehood required it: a modern, independent nation needed to have a national science.”

A regional perspective renders visible the agency of local elites in the borderlands, which contested the nationalist claims over the area using the prism of an archaeological discourse.

“A regional perspective renders visible also the agency of local elites in the borderlands, which contested the nationalist claims over the area using the same tool: the prism of an archaeological discourse.”

Possession of the archaeological record from the annexation gave Chileans the opportunity to produce world-class science on a topic of international interest.

“Possession of the archaeological record from the annexation gave Chileans the opportunity to produce world-class science on a topic of international interest.”

Like the nations fighting for the provinces, the citizens of the annexed and occupied territories used archaeology to construct a regional identity that suited their purposes.

“Like the nations fighting for the provinces, the citizens of the annexed and occupied territories used archaeology to construct a regional identity that suited their purposes.”

This same abundance provided a material foundation for locals' own archaeological collections.

“This same abundance provided a material foundation for locals' own archaeological collections.”

The trajectories of artifacts from and within the annexed territories demonstrate how archaeology played a fundamental role in claiming the arid space for the Chilean Government, the Peruvian Government, and those in the borderlands.

“The trajectories of artifacts from and within the annexed territories demonstrate how archaeology played a fundamental role in claiming the arid space for the Chilean Government, the Peruvian Government, and those in the borderlands.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The mental apprehension of space requires creative acts, conscious and not, to interiorize it.

The archaeological record composed of pre-Hispanic artifacts gathered in expeditions to the area's indigenous cemeteries, especially in the oasis of Pica, provided the territories with a claim to an existence more enduring than could be established by national politics.

“The archaeological record composed of pre-Hispanic artifacts gathered in expeditions to the area's indigenous cemeteries, especially in the oasis of Pica, provided the territories with a claim to an existence more enduring than could be established by national politics. 56”

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The citizens of Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica constructed a hybrid identity grounded in the delimited regional space, as a basis from which to argue for projects of regional economic development, autonomy, or defense from political violence.

“The citizens of Tarapaca ´, Tacna, and Arica constructed a hybrid identity 43 grounded in the delimited regional space, as a basis from which to argue for projects of regional economic development, autonomy, or defense from political violence. 44”

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Chilean scholars readily accepted the exclusion of their ancient past from research agendas because the identity they were constructing for their nation was hardly related to the indigenous legacy.

“Yet Chilean scholars readily accepted the exclusion of their ancient past from research agendas because the identity they were constructing for their nation was hardly related to the indigenous legacy.”

Despite-or because of-these Peruvian and Chilean pressures on the province, regionalist discourses figured prominently among the many identity projects there.

“Yet despite-or because of-these Peruvian and Chilean pressures on the province, regionalist discourses figured prominently among the many identity projects there.”

For turn-of-the-century Chilean archaeologists, as for their counterparts in Peru, the annexed regions, and around the globe, archaeology was a political resource that served to naturalize the existence of territories as sovereign, delimited entities defined by history, identity, and modernity.

“For turn-of-the-century Chilean archaeologists, as for their counterparts in Peru, the annexed regions, and around the globe, archaeology was a political resource that served to naturalize the existence of territories as sovereign, delimited entities defined by history, identity, and modernity.”