The Minoan Santorini Eruption and Tsunami Deposits in Palaikastro (Crete): Dating by Geology, Archaeology, 14C, and Egyptian Chronology
Open accessAbstract
Deposits from the Minoan Santorini (Thera) eruption in the eastern Mediterranean region constitute the most important regional stratigraphic marker in the chronological perplexity of the 2nd millennium BCE. Extensive tsunami deposits were discovered in Crete at the Minoan archaeological site of Palaikastro, containing reworked volcanic Santorini ash. Hence, airborne deposition of volcanic ash, probably during the 1st (Plinian) eruption phase, preceded the tsunami, which was apparently generated during the 3rd or 4th phase of the eruption, based on evidence from Thera. Average radiocarbon dates (uncalibrated) of animal bones in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits along the coast (3350 ± 25 BP) and at the inland archaeological site (3352 ± 23 BP) are astoundingly similar to the average 14 C date for the Minoan Santorini eruption at Akrotiri on Thera (3350 ± 10 BP). The wiggle-matched 14 C date of the eruption in calendar years is 1627–1600 cal BCE. Late Minoan IA pottery is the youngest element in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits, fitting with the LM IA archaeological date for the Santorini eruption, conventionally linked at ~1500 BCE with Dynasty XVIII of the historical Egyptian chronology. The reasons for the discrepancy of 100–150 yr between 14 C dating and Egyptian chronology for part of the 2nd millennium BCE are unknown. 14 C dates from Tell el-Dab c a in the eastern Nile Delta show that the 14 C age of the Santorini eruption matches with 14 C results from 18th Dynasty strata C3 and C2, thereby confirming grosso modo the conventional archaeo-historical correlations between the Aegean and Egypt. We propose that a dual dating system is used in parallel: (1) archaeological material-cultural correlations linked to Egyptian chronology; (2) 14 C dating. Mixing of dates from the 2 systems may lead to erroneous archaeological and historical correlations. A “calibration curve” should be established between Egyptian chronology and 14 C dating for the 2nd millennium BCE, which may also assist to resolve the cause of the discrepancy.
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The individual 14C dates of Palaikastro range from 3390 ± 35 BP (GrA-30339) to 3310 ± 35 BP (GrA-30336).
“The individual 14C dates of Palaikastro range from 3390 ± 35 BP (GrA-30339) to 3310 ± 35 BP (GrA-30336)”
From The Minoan Thera eruption predates Pharaoh Ahmose: Radiocarbon dating of Egyptian 17th to early 18th Dynasty museum objects (2025) · cites this paper as [9]
Table 2 (Introduction) gives 3390 ± 35 BP for GrA-30339 and 3310 ± 35 BP for GrA-30336; these bound the five bone dates. But the table also lists a Palaikastro marine-shell date of 3790 ± 60 BP, so the stated range does not cover all individual ¹⁴C dates without a bone-sample qualifier. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe uncalibrated dates for the Therasia shrub's outer-most bark and shoot samples are consistent with determinations from short-lived materials from the volcanic destruction layer at Akrotiri, Theran tsunami deposits at Çeşme-Bağlararası and Palaikastro, and contemporary mainland contexts marked by the sudden arrival of Theran pumice.
“they are also consistent with determinations from short lived materials from the volcanic destruction layer at Akrotiri11 and from Theran tsunami deposits at Çeşme-Bağlararası, Türkiye40 (e.g., 3297 ± 19 14C years BP) and Palaikastro on Crete39, as well as with samples found in contemporary mainland contexts marked by the sudden arrival of Theran pumice37,38.”
From Olive shrub buried on Therasia supports a mid-16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
There is increasing evidence for devastating Thera tsunami impacts in the Aegean.
“increasing evidence for devastating Thera tsunami impacts in the Aegean [3, 45, 52-54, 56, 73]”
From Second Intermediate Period date for the Thera (Santorini) eruption and historical implications (2022) · cites this paper as [73]
The material from Crete (Bruins et al. 2008, 2009) should also not have been affected by volcanic CO2.
“The material from Crete (Bruins et al. 2008(Bruins et al. , 2009) ) should also not have been affected by volcanic C0 2 .”
From The Chronology of Tell El-Daba: A Crucial Meeting Point of<sup>14</sup>C Dating, Archaeology, and Egyptology in the 2nd Millennium BC (2012) · cites this paper as Bruins et al. 2009
The Radiocarbon Dating of the Tsunami Deposits section reports dates for Cretan animal bones that agree with the Santorini eruption date, but it does not assess whether volcanic CO₂ affected the material. Searches for volcanic CO₂ and carbon contamination found no passage addressing that question; the CO₂ mentioned in the dating methods is gas produced during sample preparation. (LLM, conf=0.73)
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Manning, S. W., Höflmayer, F., Moeller, N., Dee, M. W., Ramsey, C. B., Fleitmann, D., Higham, T., Kutschera, W., & Wild, E. M. (2014) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00115388 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
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The Date of the Minoan Santorini Eruption: Quantifying the “Offset”
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Second Intermediate Period date for the Thera (Santorini) eruption and historical implications
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Olive shrub buried on Therasia supports a mid-16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption
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“…at a distance of some 160 km from the Thera volcano, extensive deposits were discovered along the coast, caused by the Minoan Thera eruption [8,9]. chaotic tsunami deposits were found to contain volcanic tephra ash, Late Minoan IA ceramics, as well as animal bone fragments, which were dated…”
Self-citation
- Authors
- Bruins, H. J., van der Plicht, J., & Alexander MacGillivray, J.
- Affiliations
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Bruins, Hendrik J
- ORCID
- Bruins, Hendrik J
- Venue
- Radiocarbon
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 397-411
- ISSN
- 0033-8222 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-5755
- OpenAlex
- W2490394915
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Radiocarbon (publishedVersion)
- UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute for Aegean Prehistory
- British School at Athens
- European Science Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Maritime and Coastal Archaeology
- Keywords
- Santorini eruption, Santorini, Minoan civilization, tsunami deposits, Palaikastro, radiocarbon dating, Egyptian chronology, 2nd millennium BC, Tell el-Dabca, Akrotiri, Plinian eruption, calibration curve, volcanic ash, Eighteenth Dynasty
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