Cited by 1,381Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesBehavioral Health and InterventionsCognitive Functions and Memory

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 487 of the 489 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance

Open access

Kurzban, Robert, Duckworth, Angela, Kable, Joseph W., Myers, Justus·2013·Behavioral and Brain Sciences

DOI 10.1017/s0140525x12003196PMC PMC3856320

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Why does performing certain tasks cause the aversive experience of mental effort and concomitant deterioration in task performance? One explanation posits a physical resource that is depleted over time. We propose an alternative explanation that centers on mental representations of the costs and benefits associated with task performance. Specifically, certain computational mechanisms, especially those associated with executive function, can be deployed for only a limited number of simultaneous tasks at any given moment. Consequently, the deployment of these computational mechanisms carries an opportunity cost – that is, the next-best use to which these systems might be put. We argue that the phenomenology of effort can be understood as the felt output of these cost/benefit computations. In turn, the subjective experience of effort motivates reduced deployment of these computational mechanisms in the service of the present task. These opportunity cost representations, then, together with other cost/benefit calculations, determine effort expended and, everything else equal, result in performance reductions. In making our case for this position, we review alternative explanations for both the phenomenology of effort associated with these tasks and for performance reductions over time. Likewise, we review the broad range of relevant empirical results from across sub-disciplines, especially psychology and neuroscience. We hope that our proposal will help to build links among the diverse fields that have been addressing similar questions from different perspectives, and we emphasize ways in which alternative models might be empirically distinguished.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0140525x12003196

Cites

487 of 487 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210
Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk
Kahneman, D. J., & Tversky, A. (1988) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511609220.014 · Cited by 32,720
Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (1998) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks · doi:10.1109/tnn.1998.712192 · Cited by 27,225
Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. (2005) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks · doi:10.1109/tnn.2004.842673 · Cited by 25,268
Artificial intelligence: a modern approach
Kumar, D. A., Balasubramanian, S., Byeon, D. H., & Manerkar, P. G. V. (1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-1577 · Cited by 22,191
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,563
The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition: Foundations
Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & AU (1986) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/5236.001.0001 · Cited by 15,686
An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · Cited by 12,803

Show all 489 references

Research works printed but not linked: 8

Kurzban, 2007, The Psychology of Joss Whedon: An unauthorized exploration of Buffy, Angel, and Firefly, 7
Tops, 2004, To stress or relax: Neurochemical aspects of activity and rest, Gedrag en Organisatie, 17, 32
10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252 · DOI · Paper page
Arai, 1912, Mental fatigue
Baddeley, 1974, Recent advances in learning and motivation, vol. 8, 47
Gallistel, 1990, The organization of learning: Learning, development, and conceptual change
Scerbo M. W. & Holcomb J. R. (1993). Effects of signal conspicuity and time on boredom in vigilance. Paper presented at the First Mid-Atlantic Human Factors Conference, Virginia Beach, Virginia, February 25–26, 1993.
Lynn M. & McCall M. (2000) Beyond gratitude and gratuity: A meta-analytic review of the predictors of restaurant tipping. Unpublished manuscript, School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University.

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 999

Dealing with Desirable Difficulties: Supporting Students to Accept, Reduce, or Silence Effort
de Bruin, A. B. H. (2023) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-023-01911-y · Cited by 10
Left superior parietal lobe mediates the link between spontaneous mind-wandering tendency and task-switching performance
Wong, Y.-S., & Yu, J. (2023) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108726 · Cited by 5
Sounds boring: the causal effect of boredom on self-administration of aversive stimuli in the presence of a positive alternative
Yusoufzai, M. K., Nederkoorn, C., Lobbestael, J., & Vancleef, L. M. G. (2024) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-023-10053-y · Cited by 5
The sweetness of surrender: Glucose enhances self-control by signaling environmental richness
Levy, N. L. (2016) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2016.1173202 · Cited by 5
Sharing More Than the Sofa
Beurms, S., & Miller, H. C. (2016) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721416664392 · Cited by 5
Feeling the force: Changes in a left-lateralized network of brain areas under simulated workday conditions are reflected in subjective mental effort investment
Otto, T., Zijlstra, F., & Goebel, R. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198204 · Cited by 4
Subjective (dis)utility of effort: mentally and physically demanding tasks
Ackerman, P. L., Tatel, C. E., & Lyndgaard, S. F. (2020) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00226-5 · Cited by 5
Moses, money, and multiple-choice: The Moses illusion in a multiple-choice format with high incentives
Speckmann, F., & Unkelbach, C. (2020) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-020-01128-z · Cited by 5
Economic stability promotes gift-exchange in the workplace
Bejarano, H. D., Corgnet, B., & Gómez‐Miñambres, J. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.04.033 · Cited by 5
On the Effect of Practice on Exploration and Exploitation of Options and Strategies
Cohen, D., & Teodorescu, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725690 · Cited by 6
Reducing Strategy Surrogation: The Effects of Performance Measurement System Flexibility and Environmental Dynamism
Wang, K. K., Cheng, M. M.-S., & Chang, L. J. (2022) · The Accounting Review · doi:10.2308/tar-2019-0523 · Cited by 5
Preferential Choice to Exert Cognitive Effort in Children with ADHD: a Diffusion Modelling Account
Xu, Y., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01080-x · Cited by 4
Effects of information access cost, confidence judgment and overconfidence bias on information retrieval strategy and task performance
Yang, X. J., Park, T., Wickens, C. D., & Helander, M. G. (2014) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931214581182 · Cited by 5
When the Fun Is Over
Cardini, B. B., & Freund, A. M. (2019) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000361 · Cited by 5
Is the brain a resource-cheapskate?
Goldfarb, L., & Henik, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00857 · Cited by 5
What Does Ego-Depletion Research Reveal About Self-Control? A Conceptual Analysis
Carnevale, J. J., & Fujita, K. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801850-7.00005-6 · Cited by 5
Can Ego-Depletion Be Helpful? Testing the Process Model Implication That Ego-Depletion Reduces Irrational Persistence
Osgood, J. M. (2018) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2018.1449748 · Cited by 5
Methylphenidate boosts choices of mental labor over leisure depending on baseline striatal dopaminePreprint
Hofmans, L., Papadopetraki, D., van den Bosch, R., Määttä, J. I., Froböse, M. I., Zandbelt, B. B., Westbrook, A., Verkes, R., & Cools, R. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/859637 · Cited by 5
Investigating the impact of perceived mental fatigue on sustained attention performance: a latent growth curve analysis taking social desirability into account
Lindner, C., Nagy, G., Roell, L., & Zitzmann, S. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2468281 · Cited by 5
Why Don’t Struggling Students Do Their Homework? Disentangling Motivation and Study Productivity as Drivers of Human Capital Formation
Cotton, C. S., Hickman, B. R., List, J. A., Price, J., & Roy, S. (2025) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/738479 · Cited by 4
Quality mindset: applying implicit theories to quality management
Manzani, Y. E. (2025) · International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management · doi:10.1108/ijqrm-05-2025-0153 · Cited by 7
Shared and distinct features of common effort-based decision-making paradigms and their relation to brain structure and neuropsychiatric conditions: An integrated narrative review
Bogdanov, M., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2025) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-025-01353-6 · Cited by 7
Brain–body interactions associated with the transition from mind wandering to awareness of its occurrence
Shinagawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Terasawa, Y., & Umeda, S. (2025) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niaf059 · Cited by 7
Energy deficit hyperactivity disorder (EDHD): A neurobiological energy dysregulation model for ADHD
Rahimi, M. D. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106616 · Cited by 4
Transition dynamics of external and internal attention across on-task and off-task states
Verschooren, S., Dahl, M. J., Aly, M., & Mittner, M. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00578-7 · Cited by 7
Generalized encoding of the relative subjective value of cognitive effort in dorsal ACC
Crawford, J. L., Brough, R. E., Eisenstein, S. A., Peelle, J. E., & Braver, T. S. (2024) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0367-24.2024 · Cited by 5
The effect of ego depletion on challenge and threat evaluations during a potentially stressful public speaking task
O’Brien, J., Fryer, S. M., Parker, J. K., & Moore, L. J. (2020) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2020.1839732 · Cited by 5
Do Rising Opportunity Costs Lead to Increases in Media Multitasking Over Time?
Drody, A. C., Ralph, B. C. W., Danckert, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2023) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2227562 · Cited by 6
Measuring the “invisible”: Clarifying the concept of cognitive effort in translation and interpreting processes
Zou, D., & Zhang, J. (2023) · CURRENT TRENDS IN TRANSLATION TEACHING AND LEARNING E · doi:10.51287/cttl20238 · Cited by 4
Better Together: 14-Month-Old Infants Expect Agents to Cooperate
Vizmathy, L., Begus, K., Knoblich, G., Gergely, G., & Curioni, A. (2024) · Open Mind · doi:10.1162/opmi_a_00115 · Cited by 5
Sex-based differences in fairness norm compliance and neural circuitry
Chen, W., Xiao, Z., Turel, O., Zhang, S., & He, Q. (2024) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhae052 · Cited by 4
Material incentives moderate gender differences in cognitive effort among children
Apascaritei, P., Radl, J., & Swarr, M. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102494 · Cited by 4
“The Decision to End Speech Therapy Brought More Peace and Tranquility Into Our Family”: Exploring Speech-Related Treatment Fatigue and Dropout in Parents and Children With a Cleft Palate
Alighieri, C., Mouton, T., Allemeersch, F., & Lierde, K. M. V. (2024) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-24-00158 · Cited by 4
Contextual control demands determine whether stability and flexibility trade off against each other
Geddert, R., & Egner, T. (2024) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-024-02955-x · Cited by 9
Active listening modulates the spatial hearing experience: a multicentric study
Valzolgher, C., Rosi, T., Ghiselli, S., Cuda, D., Gullotta, J., Zanetti, D., Lilli, G., Berardino, F. D., Pozzi, M., Ciorba, A., et al. (2024) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-024-06955-z · Cited by 5
A computational cognitive neuroscience approach for characterizing individual differences in autism: Introduction to Special Issue
Liu, W., Pluta, A., Charpentier, C. J., & Rosenblau, G. (2025) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2025.2 · Cited by 5
Dynamic of changes in health of 10-11 years old gymnasium boys under influence of comprehensive education’s load
Proskurov, E. (2015) · Pedagogics psychology medical-biological problems of physical training and sports · doi:10.15561/18189172.2015.0706 · Cited by 4
Self-Control and Motivation
Ampel, B. C., O'Malley, E. E., & Muraven, M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801850-7.00007-x · Cited by 5
Persuasion by Proxy: Effects of Vicarious Self-Control Use on Reactions to Persuasion Attempts
Ackerman, J. M. (2018) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2018.36.3.275 · Cited by 4
The Perception of Available Resources Influences the After-Effect of Cognitive Control on Cognitive Performance and Pain
Silvestrini, N., Vuignier, E., Matthey, A., & Piguet, V. (2019) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000386 · Cited by 4
Using the Think Aloud Protocol to Measure Desire-Goal Conflict and Conflict Resolution in a Postural Persistence Task
Gunn, C. P., & Taylor, I. M. (2020) · Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science · doi:10.1080/1091367x.2020.1835663 · Cited by 4
Unlocking a new dimension in the speed–accuracy trade-off
Tsetsos, K. (2023) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2023.03.005 · Cited by 4
Uncertainty and the act of making a difficult choice
Hall, J. J. (2023) · Philosophical Explorations · doi:10.1080/13869795.2023.2193603 · Cited by 4
A controller-peripheral architecture and costly energy principle for learning
Luo, X., Mok, R. M., Roads, B. D., & Love, B. C. (2023) · Conference on Cognitive Computational Neuroscience (CCN) · doi:10.32470/ccn.2023.1593-0 · Cited by 5
Recalcitrant Desires in Addiction
Burdman, F. G. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910114.003.0004 · Cited by 4
Investigating Game Mechanics that Target Players' Self-Control While Maintaining Engagement
Soroush, M., Hancock, M., & Bohns, V. K. (2018) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3242671.3242698 · Cited by 4
Elster’s eclecticism in analyzing emotion
Ainslie, G. W. (2021) · Inquiry · doi:10.1080/0020174x.2020.1821957 · Cited by 6
Sugar levels relate to aggression in couples without supporting the glucose model of self-control
Lange, F., & Kurzban, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00572 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Effects of Video-based e-Learning on EFLAchievement : The Mediation Effect of Behavior Control Strategies
Chae, S. E. (2018) · The Journal of AsiaTEFL · doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.2.9.398 · Cited by 4
Learning to use past evidence in a sophisticated world model
Ahilan, S., Solomon, R. B., Breton, Y.-A., Conover, K. L., Niyogi, R. K., Shizgal, P., & Dayan, P. (2019) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007093 · Cited by 4
Implementation of heuristic learning technologies for theoretic concepts formation by students mastering agricultural professions
Bilotserkovets, M., & Berestok, O. V. (2019) · Engineering and Educational Technologies · doi:10.30929/2307-9770.2019.07.01.04 · Cited by 4
Objective but not subjective fatigue increases cognitive task avoidance
Benoit, C.-E., Solopchuk, O., Borragán, G., Carbonnelle, A., Van Durme, S., & Zénon, A. (2017) · doi:10.1101/208322 · Cited by 4
Editorial: The self-regulation of human performance
Bieleke, M., & Wolff, W. (2020) · Performance Enhancement & Health · doi:10.1016/j.peh.2020.100173 · Cited by 4
Making Sense of Ego Depletion: The Replication Crisis, a Path Forward, and Lessons for Accounting ResearchersPreprint
Hurley, P. J. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3794259 · Cited by 5
Motivation Improves Working Memory by Two Processes: Prioritisation and Retrieval ThresholdsPreprint
Grogan, J. P., Randhawa, G., Kim, M., & Manohar, S. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qkycj · Cited by 4
Neural mechanisms underlying state mental fatigue: a systematic review and activation likelihood estimation meta-analysisPreprint
Salihu, A. T., Hill, K., & Jaberzadeh, S. J. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1388628/v1 · Cited by 4
Affective theory of mind impairments underlying callous-unemotional traits and the role of cognitive controlPreprint
Winters, D. E., & Sakai, J. T. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/stwj8 · Cited by 4
Risky Gadgets to the Rescue - Reframing In-Car Technology Use as Task Engagement
Steinberger, J. F. (2018) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.115992 · Cited by 4
EffortPreprint
Hendrickx, M. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/d76ub · Cited by 4
Neural basis of cognitive control signals in anterior cingulate cortex during delay discountingPreprint
Seamans, J. K., White, S., Morningstar, M. D., Emberly, E. G., Linsenbardt, D. N., Ma, B., Czachowski, C. L., & Lapish, C. C. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.99930 · Cited by 4
Relations Among Multiple Dimensions of Self-Reported Listening Effort in Response to an Auditory Psychomotor Vigilance Task
Golob, E. J., Olayo, R. C., Brown, D. M. Y., & Mock, J. R. (2024) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2024_jslhr-23-00465 · Cited by 3
Relying on the external world: Individuals variably use low- and medium-loading, but rarely high-loading, strategies when engaging visual working memory
Böing, S., de Zwart, B., Brink, A. F. T., Nijboer, T. C. W., & der Stigchel, S. V. (2024) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2025.2484523 · Cited by 3
A Way Forward for Sustained Attention Research: Insights from the Deep Past
Humphrey, B., Nelson, X. J., & Helton, W. S. (2025) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-012125-121408 · Cited by 5
Examining the association between vigilance and mind wandering
Schwartzman, B., Zanesco, A. P., Denkova, E., Tsukahara, J. S., & Jha, A. P. (2025) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2025.1577053 · Cited by 3
University students' metaverse attachment and its predictors: escaping from reality
Xu, Y., & Chen, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1594256 · Cited by 2
Task-related effort - distinguishing boredom- and difficulty-related effort via electrodermal activity
Radtke, V. C., Martarelli, C., & Wolff, W. (2025) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.115144 · Cited by 3
Gamified feedback in adaptive retrieval practice: Points and progress-bars enhance motivation but not learning
van den Broek, G. S. E., Scholten, S., van Thuil, B., van Rijn, H., van Gog, T., & van der Velde, M. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108862 · Cited by 8
Regulation strategies and their impact on subsequent response inhibition: the moderating role of the self-control trait
Wójcik, N. E., & Nȩcka, E. (2019) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2019.85508 · Cited by 3
Ego Depletion Hampers Logical Reasoning and Monitoring Accuracy: An Experimental Study
Hao, T., Wang, Z., Dai, S., & Ren, Y. (2023) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2023.2248469 · Cited by 3
Parenting Practices and Children’s Cognitive Effort: A Laboratory Study
Foley, W., & Radl, J. (2024) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316241250062 · Cited by 3
Mind wandering is not always harmful in sports: the role of its content
Li, J., Li, C., Xue, S., & He, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1348893 · Cited by 3
Analysis of the outdoor training effects on fatigue performance and thermal comfort in summer
Tang, T., Zhu, Y., Huang, S., Lin, Z., & Fang, Z. (2025) · Case Studies in Thermal Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.csite.2025.106341 · Cited by 3
A minute can only be spent once: Validating a behavioral paradigm to study societally relevant time allocation conflicts
Lange, F., & Rieger, A. (2025) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-025-02769-1 · Cited by 3
Decoupling Goal Striving From Resource Depletion by Forming Implementation Intentions
Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801850-7.00003-2 · Cited by 3
Patterns of brain and cardiovascular activation while solving rule-discovery and rule-application numeric tasks
Sosnowski, T., Rynkiewicz, A., Draps, M., Kępkowicz, A., Majewska, A., Pstrągowska, A., Oleksy, T., Wypych, M., & Marchewka, A. (2017) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.04.006 · Cited by 3
Cognitive labor shapes the desire for social and monetary compensation
Schmitz, L., Bijleveld, E., & Veling, H. (2020) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-020-09856-0 · Cited by 3
Outcome unpredictability affects outcome-specific motivation to learn
Hartanto, G., Livesey, E. J., Griffiths, O., Lachnit, H., & Thorwart, A. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01932-x · Cited by 4
Me aburro luego existo. La constitución ontológica de la individualidad desde el aburrimiento
Velasco, J. R. (2021) · Bajo Palabra · doi:10.15366/bp2021.28.005 · Cited by 3
Self-Control Capacity Moderates the Effect of Stereotype Threat on Female University Students’ Worry During a Math Performance Situation
Bertrams, A., Lindner, C., Muntoni, F., & Retelsdorf, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.794896 · Cited by 4
Imposed load versus voluntary investment: Executive control and attention management in dual-task performance
Gopher, D., Ben-Eliezer, D., & Levine, A. S. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103591 · Cited by 5
Sound and Silence: The Effects of Environmental Conditions on State Boredom in an Online Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Anderson, A. J., McMeen, C. E., Perone, S., & Weybright, E. H. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12080282 · Cited by 3
Visual tracking speed threshold in NCAA Division I women’s soccer predicting match performance
Phillips, J. P., & André, T. (2022) · Scientific Journal of Sport and Performance · doi:10.55860/revs9403 · Cited by 3
The Effect of Immediacy of Expected Goal Feedback on Persistence in a Physical Task
Gunn, C. P., Englert, C., Ennigkeit, F., & Taylor, I. M. (2023) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2022-0038 · Cited by 3
Mixed evidence for a relationship of cognitive fatigue to political engagement
Hjermitslev, I. B., & Johnston, C. D. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102621 · Cited by 4
Working memory capacity predicts focus back effort under different task demands
He, H. G., Chen, Y., Zhang, X., & Liu, Q. (2023) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2023.103589 · Cited by 3
Cognitive Economy and Product Categorization
Piazzai, M., Liu, M., & Montauti, M. (2024) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.15751 · Cited by 4
Educational Tourism: A Behavioral and Perceptual Analysis of Chinese Students in Malaysian Public Universities
Xinlin, J., Shah, K. A. M., Li, W., Na, M., & Alam, S. S. (2024) · Journal of China Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/19388160.2024.2336079 · Cited by 3
Not Everyone Chooses Profit (If It Is too Tiring): What Behavioral and EEG Data Tell Us
Balconi, M., Acconito, C., & Angioletti, L. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14114793 · Cited by 4
The effectiveness of an online attention training program in improving attention and reducing boredom
Ng, H. C., Wong, W. L., & Chan, C. S. (2024) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-024-10081-2 · Cited by 4
Mind the instructions: Reward cues are liked first, wanted later
Prutean, N., Vermeylen, L., Kukkonen, N., Steendam, S. T., Eayrs, J. O., Krebs, R. M., Wiersema, J. R., Vassena, E., Boehler, C. N., & Notebaert, W. (2024) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105885 · Cited by 3
The relationship between task value, mental fatigue, and motivation: The role of trait mindfulness
Wójcik, N. E., & Maj, M. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113120 · Cited by 3
Pace yourself: Neural activation and connectivity changes over time vary by task type and pacing
Teng, J., Massar, S. A. A., Tandi, J., & Lim, J. (2019) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2019.103629 · Cited by 2
Sex Differences in the Relationship Between Childhood Self‐Regulation and Adolescent Adiposity
Javaras, K. N., Armstrong, J. M., Klein, M. H., Essex, M. J., Davidson, R. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2020) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22926 · Cited by 5
When will's wont wants wanting
Dayan, P. (2021) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x20001508 · Cited by 2
On Balancing Fairness and Efficiency of Task Assignment in Agent Societies
Cousy, K., Lujak, M., Salvatore, A., Fernández, A., & Giordani, S. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18697-4_8 · Cited by 3
Outbursts: An Evolutionary Approach to Emotions in the Mediation Context
Williams, K. E. G., & Hinshaw, A. (2018) · Negotiation Journal · doi:10.1111/nejo.12222 · Cited by 4
Food restriction induces functional resilience to sleep restriction in rats
Loomis, S., McCarthy, A. P., Dijk, D., Gilmour, G., & Winsky‐Sommerer, R. (2020) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaa079 · Cited by 3
Is Procrastination Related to Low‐Quality Data?
Voss, N. M., & Vangsness, L. (2020) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/emip.12355 · Cited by 3
Brain Functional Architecture and Human Understanding
Yufik, Y. M. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.95594 · Cited by 3
Conquering fatigue: the battle for engagement
Hopstaken, J. F. (2016) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 3

Authors: Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J.
Affiliations: University of Pennsylvania (US)
ORCID: Kurzban, Robert
Duckworth, Angela
Kable, Joseph W.
Venue: Behavioral and Brain Sciences
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 2013-12
Volume: 36
Issue: 6
Pages: 661-679
ISSN: 0140-525X (ISSN-L)
1469-1825
DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x12003196
PMC: PMC3856320
OpenAlex: W2164682760
Cited by: 1,381
References: 489
Citations by year: 2026: 99 · 2025: 132 · 2024: 118 · 2023: 119 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 138 · 2020: 133 · 2019: 128 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 97 · 2016: 87 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 8
FWCI: 36.02
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 3 d)
Locations: Behavioral and Brain Sciences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
ScholarlyCommons (University of Pennsylvania) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (K01AG033182)
National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH101111)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA029149, R01DA029149)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: subjective effort, cognitive effort, task performance, opportunity cost, executive function, cognitive resource allocation, effort aversion
MeSH terms: Cost-Benefit Analysis, Mental Fatigue, Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychomotor Performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks