Cited by 1,090Language Development and DisordersEFL/ESL Teaching and LearningNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

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Maturational constraints on language development.

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Long, Michael H.·1990·Studies in Second Language Acquisition

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Abstract

This article reviews the second language research on age-related differences, as well as first language work needed to disambiguate some of the findings. Five conclusions are drawn, (a) Both the initial rate of acquisition and the ultimate level of attainment depend in part on the age at which learning begins. (b) There are sensitive periods governing language development, first or second, during which the acquisition of different linguistic abilities is successful and after which it is irregular and incomplete. (c) The age-related loss in ability is cumulative (not a catastrophic one-time event), affecting first one linguistic domain and then another, and is not limited to phonology, (d) The deterioration in some individuals begins as early as age 6—not at puberty as is often claimed. (e) Affective, input, and current cognitive explanations for the reduced ability are inadequate. The capacity for language development is maturationally constrained, and its decline probably reflects a progressive loss of neural plasticity, itself possibly associated with increasing myelination.

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Authors: Long, M. H.
Affiliations: University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
Corresponding author: Long, Michael H.
ORCID: Long, Michael H.
Venue: Studies in Second Language Acquisition
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 1990-09
Volume: 12
Issue: 3
Pages: 251-285
ISSN: 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
1470-1545
DOI: 10.1017/s0272263100009165
OpenAlex: W2034658764
Cited by: 1,090
References: 110
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 58
FWCI: 13.99
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 6642 d)
Locations: Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords: critical period hypothesis, sensitive period, age of onset, second language acquisition, first language development, language loss, neuroplasticity, myelination, phonological development

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Maturational constraints on language development.

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