EFFECTS OF EXPANDING AND EQUAL SPACING ON SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY LEARNING: Does Gradually Increasing Spacing Increase Vocabulary Learning?
Abstract
Although expanding spacing is often regarded as the most effective practice schedule, studies comparing equal and expanding spacing have yielded mixed results. The present study set out to examine whether the amount of spacing and the retention interval may influence the effects of expanding and equal spacing on second language (L2) vocabulary learning. One hundred and twenty-eight Japanese college students studied 20 English-Japanese word pairs. The type of spacing (expanding and equal) and the amount of spacing (massed, short, medium, and long) were manipulated. Results demonstrated a limited, yet statistically significant, advantage of expanding spacing. The finding is significant because this is the first L2 study to find the superiority of expanding over equal spacing. The main effect of the amount of spacing was also significant, producing large effect sizes. Taken together, the results suggest that expanding spacing may facilitate vocabulary learning, although introducing spacing may have a larger effect.
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Spacing effects seem applicable to L2 vocabulary and grammar learning.
“Many researchers have demonstrated that spacing effects seem also applicable to L2 vocabulary and grammar learning.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Nakata, 2015
In deliberate L2 vocabulary learning in paired associate format, inserting temporal spacing between retrieval trials can increase retention of vocabulary knowledge from 160% to 250% relative to massed practice.
“In deliberate L2 vocabulary learning in paired associate format, for instance, by inserting temporal spacing between retrieval trials, retention of vocabulary knowledge can increase from 160% to 250% relative to massed practice (e.g., Nakata, 2015;Nakata & Suzuki, 2019).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Nakata, 2015
Several L2 studies showed distributed practice effects on delayed posttests administered at least 1 week after treatment.
“Furthermore, several L2 studies showed the distributed practice effects on delayed posttests that are administered at least 1 week after the treatment (e.g., for pronunciation learning, Li & DeKeyser, 2019;for vocabulary learning, Nakata, 2015;Nakata & Suzuki, 2019;for grammar learning, Bird, 2010;Rogers, 2015;Suzuki, 2017).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Nakata, 2015
Cites
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Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 6× · see citing works
“A possible interaction between feedback and relative spacing may be caused by the differential positions of the initial retrieval between equal and expanding spacing (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2006 ; Storm et al., 2010 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x · Cited by 1,582 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The results are consistent with the desirable diffi culty framework, according to which a treatment that increases the initial rate of acquisition does not always enhance long-term retention (e.g., Bjork, 1994 ; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992 ).”
BackgroundResultKarpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.704 · Cited by 421 · cited 18× · see citing works
“…as long as or longer than those in all previous PAL experiments that have found an advantage of expanding spacing (5–60 s; e.g., Cull et al., 1996 ; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007 ; Landauer & Bjork, 1978 ; Logan & Balota, 2008 ), similar results might have been obtained even if longer absolute…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSemantic and Structural Elaboration in L2 Lexical Acquisition
Barcroft, J. (2002) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00186 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Optimizing distributed practice
Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236 · Cited by 296 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In other words, although an ISI of 1 day may be significantly more effective than an ISI of 5 min (Cepeda et al., 2009 ), for instance, there may be only a small difference between the effects of 5-min and 10-min ISIs (see Crothers & Suppes, 1967 ; Logan & Balota, 2008 ; Pyc & Rawson, 2007 , for…”
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Is expanding retrieval a superior method for learning text materials?
Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.1.116 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
List learning of second language vocabulary
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Retrieval practice over the long term: Should spacing be expanding or equal-interval?
Kang, S. H. K., Lindsey, R. V., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0636-z · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Spacing techniques in second language vocabulary acquisition: Short-term gains vs. long-term memory
Schuetze, U. (2015) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168814541726 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
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The Effects of Spaced Practice on Second Language Learning: A Meta‐Analysis
Kim, S. K., & Webb, S. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12479 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
A Meta-Analytic Review of the Benefit of Spacing out Retrieval Practice Episodes on Retention
Latimier, A., Peyre, H., & Ramus, F. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09572-8 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF MASSING AND SPACING ON THE LEARNING OF SEMANTICALLY RELATED AND UNRELATED WORDS
Nakata, T., & Suzuki, Y. (2019) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263118000219 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Specifically, although long spacing tends to be effective when the posttest is given after a long delay, short spacing tends to be effective when the posttest is given after a short delay (e.g., Nakata, 2015; Nakata & Webb, 2016).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationSuzuki, Y. (2021) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12433 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
KASPROWICZ, R. E., MARSDEN, E., & SEPHTON, N. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12586 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT
Suzuki, Y., & Hanzawa, K. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263121000358 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“In deliberate L2 vocabulary learning in paired associate format, for instance, by inserting temporal spacing between retrieval trials, retention of vocabulary knowledge can increase from 160% to 250% relative to massed practice (e.g., Nakata, 2015; Nakata & Suzuki, 2019).”
BackgroundMethodLI, M., & DEKEYSER, R. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12580 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Namaziandost, E., Mohammed Sawalmeh, M. H., & Izadpanah Soltanabadi, M. (2020) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2020.1792261 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Spaced vocabulary acquisition while incidental listening by ESL university students
Zubenko, T., Gavrylenko, A., Zhyvotovska, T., & Vasylieva, N. (2022) · Advanced Education · doi:10.20535/2410-8286.250501 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tadayonifar, M., & Entezari, M. (2026) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688261452314
- Authors
- Nakata, T.
- Affiliations
- Victoria University of Wellington (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Nakata, Tatsuya
- ORCID
- Nakata, Tatsuya
- Venue
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2015-04-16
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 677-711
- ISSN
- 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1545
- OpenAlex
- W2110502765
- Cited by
- 179
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 18.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- second language vocabulary acquisition, retention interval, spacing effect, massed practice, spaced repetition, Japanese learners of English
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