Cited by 391Animal Behavior and Welfare StudiesVeterinary Pharmacology and AnesthesiaAnimal testing and alternatives

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Why is There no Simple Way of Measuring Animal Welfare?

Mason, G, Mendi, M·1993·Animal Welfare

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Abstract

Abstract Although the physiological and behavioural changes that can indicate poor welfare are generally agreed upon, using these measures in practice sometimes yields results that are hard to interpret. For example, different types of measure may suggest quite different things about an animal's welfare. Such contradictions are often due to the differing properties of the variables being measured. How each variable responds to a stressor can be affected by several factors - the type of unpleasant stimulus to which the animal is exposed; when and for how long exposure occurs; the animal's psychological state, eg does it feel that it is in control?; and the time at which the measurement is made, relative to the stressor. Typical responses also often differ between species and between individuals, and may even change in a single individual over time. Furthermore, some responses used to assess welfare lack specificity: they can be elicited by neutral or even pleasant events as well as by aversive ones. Appreciating these factors is vital when designing experiments, when choosing what to measure along with each welfare variable, and when interpreting results. Even after taking these factors into consideration, interpreting a result can still be difficult. One approach then is to consider the effects on welfare of the changes measured, eg if there is immunosuppression, does the animal succumb to disease? Another is to use the animal's behaviour to indicate its preference for, or aversion to, particular environments. Ultimately, however, interpreting welfare measures involves subjective judgements which will be influenced by the nature of our concern for the animal under consideration. By raising these problems, we hope that this review will highlight and clarify the apparent contradictions that sometimes emerge in scientific studies of animal welfare, and help researchers improve the designs of their experiments for the benefit of the animals concerned.

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Manteuffel, C., Spitschak, M., Ludwig, C., & Wirthgen, E. (2021) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2021.1998774 · Cited by 5
Otters in Captivity
Reed‐Smith, J., & Larson, S. (2017) · Animal welfare · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46994-2_31 · Cited by 5
Effect of enrichments on behavioural reaction norms of two captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in Aalborg Zoo, Denmark
Dahl, F. M., Hansen, H. H., Vorup, L. D., Jensen, L. Ø., Spyridopoulos, P. S., Jensen, T. H., Pertoldi, C., Alstrup, A. K. O., & Pagh, S. (2020) · Genetics and Biodiversity Journal · doi:10.46325/gabj.v4i2.98 · Cited by 5
Causal factors of equine stereotypy
McBride, S. D., & Hemmings, A. (2004) · BSAP Occasional Publication · doi:10.1017/s0263967x00041227 · Cited by 5
Improving the Welfare of Laboratory-Housed Primates Through the Use of Positive Reinforcement Training: Practicalities of Implementation
Bowell, V. A. (2010) · Cited by 5
Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Belastung von Lawinen- und Rettungshunden bei der Lauf- und der Sucharbeit
Koehler, F. (2004) · Electronic Theses of LMU Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München) · doi:10.5282/edoc.2383 · Cited by 5
Teleost welfare: behavioural, cognitive and physiological aspects in Oreochromis mossambicus.
Galhardo, M. L. S. (2011) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · doi:10.34626/k6tq-qn70 · Cited by 4
Conflicts between chicken welfare and public health risks in poultry husbandry : stakeholders’ perceptions and moral convictions
van Asselt, M. (2019) · doi:10.18174/469482 · Cited by 5
Assessing laboratory animal welfare: the crucial importance of construct validity
Mason, G. (2026) · Laboratory Animals · doi:10.1177/00236772251380871 · Cited by 5
Looking out for danger: Theoretical and empirical issues in translating human attention bias tasks to assess animal affective states
Kappel, S., Collins, S. A., Mendl, M., & Fureix, C. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105980 · Cited by 4
“Behavioural and physiological changes can be assessed quantitatively, but the acquisition, interpretation and understanding of shifts in these indices concerning animal affect are not always straightforward (Mason and Mendl, 1993; Mendl et al., 2009; Paul et al., 2005).”
Influence of enclosure design on the behaviour and welfare of Pogona vitticeps
Denommé, M., Bakker, N. L., & Tattersall, G. J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0322682 · Cited by 7
“Regardless, either interpretation must be taken with caution; the size of the observed effect was relatively small, and the relationship between inactivity and stress can be ambiguous [88], especially without concomitant indicators of stress [10,89].”
Managing repetitive locomotor behaviour and time spent off exhibit in a male black-footed cat (Felis negripes) through exhibit and husbandry modifications
Leeds, A., Stone, D., Johnson, B., Less, E. H., Schoffner, T., Dennis, P. M., Lukas, K. E., & Wark, J. D. (2016) · The Journal of zoo and aquarium research · doi:10.19227/jzar.v4i2.165 · Cited by 4
“Background Stereotypic behaviour (i.e. repetitive, invariant and functionless behaviour) is often considered a sign of suboptimal welfare (Mason and Mendl 1993; Mason 1991), however, these behaviours can be habitual and/or a remnant of past experience(s) (Mason and Latham 2004).”
Background
Poultry welfare monitoring: group-level technologies
Dawkins, M. S., & Rowe, E. (2020) · Burleigh Dodds series in agricultural science · doi:10.19103/as.2020.0078.07 · Cited by 4
Lead has different impacts on behavior of the native Mexican mojarra and invasive convict cichlid
Olivares‐Rubio, H. F., Arce, E., Burciaga, L. M., Archundia, M. P. F., & Osorio‐Beristain, M. (2023) · Hydrobiologia · doi:10.1007/s10750-023-05319-y · Cited by 4
“We selected behavioral measurements that serve as indicators of fish performance (Mason & Mendi, 1993).”
Method
A review : the effects of animal welfare on beef productivity and the consumers’ demand
Sonoda, Y., Oishi, K., Kumagai, H., & Hirooka, H. (2019) · Nihon Chikusan Gakkaiho · doi:10.2508/chikusan.90.1 · Cited by 4
Method developments and assessments of animal welfare in IVC-systems
Krohn, T. (2015) · Cited by 4
A functional framework for a comprehensive study of welfare in fishes
Alvarado, M. V., Cerdá‐Reverter, J. M., & Espigares, F. (2025) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.1833 · Cited by 3
“This affective-based approach has gained prominence in animal welfare science (e.g. [29–31]), operating under the premise that an animal’s welfare may be compromised even if it appears healthy, grows and reproduces, particularly when it experiences subjective suffering.”
Review: How do we measure welfare on farm? Indicators, proxies and gold standards
Dwyer, C. M., Jørgensen, G. H. M., & Gautier, J. M. (2026) · animal · doi:10.1016/j.animal.2026.101790 · Cited by 3
Comparison of Police Data on Animal Cruelty and the Perception of Animal Welfare NGOs in Hungary
Lorászkó, G., Vetter, S., Rácz, B., Sótonyi, P., & Ózsvári, L. (2023) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13071224 · Cited by 3
Ethics and Welfare in invertebrates: a stepping-stone to research and animal production
Crespi-Abril, A. C., & Rubilar, T. (2023) · Revista de Biología Tropical · doi:10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v72is1.58228 · Cited by 6
“…is multidisciplinary as it includes ethology, physiology, pathology, biochemistry, genetics, immunology, nutrition, cognitive-neural, veterinary, and ethics (Fraser, 2008a, Fraser, 2008b; Fraser et al., 1997; Lassen et al., 2006; Mason & Mendl, 1993; Mellor et al., 2009; Sandøe & Simonsen, 1992).”
Pebble to the Metal: A Boulder Approach to Enrichment for Danio rerio
Byrd, K. A., Theil, J. H., Geronimo, J. T., Dallaire, J. A., Gutierrez, M. F., Hui, E. I., Felt, T. K., Coden, K. M., Ratuski, A. S., Felt, S. A., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298657 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, measures of behavior ( e . g ., preference tests) alone are not as meaningful without concurrent physiological measures ( e . g ., cortisol levels) to validate the results [14].”
Evidence of mood states in reptiles
Hoehfurtner, T., Wilkinson, A., Moszuti, S. A., & Burman, O. H. P. (2025) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-025-01973-y · Cited by 3
“Animal welfare concerns are informed by evidence that a given species has the capacity to experience moods and emotions, influencing how we interact with them and guiding our expectations for their quality of life (Mason and Mendl 1993).”
Conservation and Individual Worth
Aitken, G. (1997) · Environmental Values · doi:10.1177/096327199700600405 · Cited by 3
Play, Sexual Display, or Just Boredom Relief?
da Silva, V. M. F., & Spinelli, L. G. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35651-3_8 · Cited by 3
Business failure in the use of animals: ethical issues and contestations
Mellahi, K., & Wood, G. (2005) · Business Ethics A European Review · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8608.2005.00399.x · Cited by 3
Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) Behavior in a Northern Climate Zoo
Mueller, J. E., Dennis, P. M., Willis, M. A., Simone, E. A., & Lukas, K. E. (2013) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2013.26.04.02 · Cited by 3
Comparison of the Glucocorticoid Concentrations between Three Species of Lemuridae Kept in a Temporary Housing Facility
Volfová, M., Machovcová, Z., Voslářová, E., Bedáňová, I., & Večerek, V. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10061013 · Cited by 3
“Detailed knowledge of the individual species helps to understand their natural behaviour and responses to stressful situations [11].”
Background
The D.G.M. Wood-Gush Memorial Lecture Animal ethics and animal welfare science: bridging the two cultures 1
Fraser, D. J. (1999) · Cited by 3
Environmental enrichment effects on the activity of a nearctic river otter
Nelson, K. O. (2009) · RIT Scholar Works (Rochester Institute of Technology) · Cited by 3
Housing, stress and productivity : studies in growing and reproducing pigs
Munsterhjelm, C. (2009) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 3
Informed consent for AI consciousness research: a Talmudic framework for graduated protections
Wolfson, I. (2025) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00852-z · Cited by 2
The use of fecal cortisol for enrolment of free-roaming dogs in Singapore to a national rehabilitation-rehoming program: A possible indicator of allostasis
Chen, P. Z., Chong, S. Q. Y., Chong, Q., Chan, A. H. J., Fernandez, C. J., Chen, A. G., Chang, S. F., Yap, H. H., & Er, K. B. H. (2022) · Journal of Veterinary Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2022.10.001 · Cited by 2
Validation of two enzyme immunoassays for non-invasive glucocorticoid measurement in a lacertid lizard (Podarcis muralis): Effects of pharmacological and biological stimuli on faecal corticosterone metabolites and behaviour
Bartolomé, A., Palme, R., Macho‐Maschler, S., Carazo, P., & Font, E. (2024) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114751 · Cited by 5
“Although this was expected [19], it may be a confounding factor that should be considered when interpreting the results along with other measures [16].”
Influential
Seasonal Changes in Behavior and Exhibit Use of Captive African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Black Rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis)
Mueller, J. E. (2008) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 2
How should the psychological welfare of zoo elephants be investigated
Mason, G. J., & Veasey, J. S. (2008) · The Atrium (University of Guelph) · Cited by 2

Authors: Mason, G., & Mendi, M.
Affiliations: University of Cambridge (GB)
Corresponding author: Mason, G
ORCID: Mason, G
Venue: Animal Welfare
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 1993-11
Volume: 2
Issue: 4
Pages: 301-319
ISSN: 0962-7286 (ISSN-L)
2054-1538
DOI: 10.1017/s0962728600016092
OpenAlex: W2620308027
Cited by: 391
References: 74
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 11.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 10663 d)
Locations: Animal Welfare (publishedVersion)
WBI Studies Repository (submittedVersion)
The Atrium (University of Guelph) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
Keywords: animal welfare assessment, stress response, individual differences in stress response, immunosuppression

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Why is There no Simple Way of Measuring Animal Welfare?

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