On the Mechanism of N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Catalyzed Reactions Involving Acyl Azoliums

Abstract

Catalytic reactions promoted by N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have exploded in popularity since 2004 when several reports described new fundamental reactions that extended beyond the long-studied generation of acyl anion equivalents. These new NHC-catalyzed reactions allow chemists to generate unique reactive species from otherwise inert starting materials, all under simple, mild reaction conditions and with exceptional selectivities. In analogy to transition metal catalysis, the use of NHCs has introduced a new set of elementary steps that operate via discrete reactive species, including acyl anion, homoenolate, and enolate equivalents, usually generated by oxidation state reorganization ("redox neutral" reactions). Nearly all NHC-catalyzed reactions offer operationally simple reactions, proceed at room temperature without the need for stringent exclusion of air, and do not generate reaction byproducts. Variation of the catalyst or reaction conditions can profoundly influence reaction outcomes, and researchers can tune the desired selectivities through careful choice of NHC precursor and base. The catalytically generated homoenolate and enolate equivalents are nucleophilic species. In contrast, the catalytically generated acyl azolium and α,β-unsaturated acyl azoliums are electrophilic cationic species with unique and unprecedented chemistry. For example, when generated catalytically, these species transformed an α-functionalized aldehyde to an ester under redox neutral conditions without coupling reagents or waste. In addition to providing new approaches to catalytic esterifications, acyl azoliums offer unique reactivities that chemists can exploit for selective reactions. This Account focuses on the discovery and mechanistic investigation of the catalytic generation of acyl azoliums and α,β-unsaturated acyl azoliums. These chemical species are fascinating, and their catalytic generation is an important development. Studies of their unusual chemistry, however, date back to the intense investigation of thiamine-dependent enzymatic processes in the 1960s. Acyl azoliums are remarkably reactive in acylation chemistry and are unusually chemoselective. These two properties have led to a new wave of reactions such as redox esterification reaction (1) and the catalytic kinetic resolution of challenging substrates (i.e., 3). Our group and others have also developed methods to generate and exploit α,β-unsaturated acyl azoliums, which have facilitated new C-C bond-forming annulations, including a catalytic, enantioselective variant of the Claisen rearrangement (2). From essentially one class of catalysts, the N-mesityl derived triazolium salts, researchers can easily prepare highly enantioenriched dihydropyranones and dihydropyridinones. Although this field is now one of the most explored areas of enantioselective C-C bond forming reactions, many mechanistic details remained unsolved and in dispute. In this Account, we address the mechanistic inquiries about the characterization of the unsaturated acyl triazolium species and its kinetic profile under catalytically relevant conditions. We also provide explanations for the requirement and effect of the N-mesityl group in NHC catalysis based on detailed experimental data within given specific reactions or conditions. We hope that our studies provide a roadmap for catalyst design/selection and new reaction discovery based on a fundamental understanding of the mechanistic course of NHC reactions.