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Mechanisms of cellular senescence in human and mouse cells.
Abstract
Telomere erosion is considered to be the main cause of the onset of replicative senescence. However, recent findings suggest that a senescent phenotype can be induced by a variety of other stimuli that act independently of telomeres. Moreover, telomere-dependent replicative senescence depends on the species of cell origin, in particular whether cells are of human or rodent origin. In addition, the tissue of origin may also dictate the pathway by which cells undergo replicative senescence. In this Review article, we categorize cellular senescence into two types, which for simplicity we term intrinsic or extrinsic senescence, focus on the differences between human and mouse cells, and discuss the roles of the p53 and pRb tumor suppressor pathways in cellular senescence.
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“Previous studies illustrated that in vitro cultivated senescent MEFs manifested upregulation of Cdkn1a (encoding p21), Cdkn2a (encoding p16), Lmnb1, Mki67, and other conventional senescence markers (Sherr and Dipinho, 2000; Parrinello et al., 2003; Itahana et al., 2004).”
From Single-Cell Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Six Subpopulations Reflecting Distinct Cellular Fates in Senescent Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts (2020) · cites this paper as Itahana et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“MEFs derived from M. musculus possess long telomeres and easily detectable telomerase activity (Itahana et al., 2004”
From DNA Repair, Genome Stability, and Aging (2005) · cites this paper as Itahana et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“In many primary human cell lines, replicative senescence occurs secondary to attrition of the ends of the chromosomes, the telomeres, in a process termed “intrinsic senescence” (Itahana et al., 2004”
From DNA Repair, Genome Stability, and Aging (2005) · cites this paper as Itahana et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“senescent cells accumulate in vivo in mammals with increasing age and at sites of pathology (Itahana et al., 2004”
From DNA Repair, Genome Stability, and Aging (2005) · cites this paper as Itahana et al., 2004
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“The presence of telomerase activity and consequently long telomeres have previously been reported in MEF cultures [34, 35].”
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Ursodeoxycholic acid modulates histone acetylation and induces differentiation and senescence
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“have associated induction of senescence with histone hypoacetylation.(75) Similarly, the lack of expression of telomerase has been correlated with hypoacetylation of AcH3 and AcH4.”
BackgroundBiogerontology: research status, challenges and opportunities.
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“Almost all the genetic interventions by transient or permanent transfection and ectopic expression of various genes on this model system have focused on extending the replicative lifespan of cells by bypassing the cell cycle check-points (127-129).”
BackgroundCellular senescence or stemness: hypoxia flips the coin
Otero-Albiol, D., & Carnero, A. (2021) · Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/s13046-021-02035-0 · Cited by 56
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Potassium Channel KCNA1 Modulates Oncogene-Induced Senescence and Transformation
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“Most of these pathways involved a central role of the p53 as well as of the p16–Rb pathways in human cells (11), but the experimental evidence were mainly obtained using only human fibroblasts.”
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“and transcription factors and the capacity to secrete degradative enzymes and cytokines (7).”
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Senescence: an antiviral defense that is tumor suppressive?
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INI1 Induces Interferon Signaling and Spindle Checkpoint in Rhabdoid Tumors
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MEF immortalization to investigate the ins and outs of mutagenesis
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“First, bypass of senescence in culture is a very rare and complex process, involving several pivotal genetic alterations rather than only one, before human cells can become established in vitro (30,40, 41 ).”
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“…cells frequently secrete degradative enzymes and cytokines that can disrupt tissue architecture, these findings suggest that senescent cells may contribute to the age-related decline in tissue structure and/or the genesis of certain age-related pathologies (Kipling 2001; Itahana et al. 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialMammalian cells acquire epigenetic hallmarks of human cancer during immortalization
Tommasi, S., Zheng, A., Weninger, A., Bates, S. E., Li, X. A., Wu, X., Hollstein, M., & Besaratinia, A. (2013) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gks1051 · Cited by 45
“Despite obvious differences between human and mouse, key aspects of cellular senescence in the two species are well-conserved during evolution (11,12).”
BackgroundKirsch, V., Ramge, J.-M., Schoppa, A., Ignatius, A., & Riegger, J. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11071106 · Cited by 47
“However, in contrast to replicative senescence, SIPS has also been found to occur independently of telomere shortening [18,19].”
BackgroundOxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and premature placental senescence in preeclampsia
Nègre‐Salvayre, A., Swiader, A., Salvayre, R., & Guerby, P. (2022) · Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1016/j.abb.2022.109416 · Cited by 47
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“Premature senescence induced by stress factors [16] is another previously mentioned type of senescence.”
Role of the p63-FoxN1 regulatory axis in thymic epithelial cell homeostasis during aging
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“For example, aged organs are considered to be sites of accumulated cellular senescence.(20,21) In the aged thymus, it is possible that there is an accumulation of senescent TECs as impliedbysenescence-associatedb-galactosidase (SA-b-gal) staining activity(22) in a previously characterized premature aging mouse model.”
BackgroundRegulation of fatty acid synthesis and Δ9-desaturation in senescence of human fibroblasts
Maeda, M., Scaglia, N., & Igal, R. A. (2009) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2008.11.009 · Cited by 40
“Other factors, such as DNA damage, activation of tumor suppressor genes, certain cell culture conditions, and even oncogenic/mitogenic stimuli, also trigger the mechanisms of senescence (Itahana et al., 2004).”
BackgroundRecent Advances in Aging and Immunosenescence: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies
Wang, S., Huo, T., Lu, M., Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., He, W., & Chen, H. (2025) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells14070499 · Cited by 47
Consequences of telomere shortening during lifespan
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“A major drawback of this strategy is that, unlike humans, most short-lived species have long telomeres and telomerase-independent cell division counting mechanisms [8,9,11].”
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“Senescence can occur naturally through a telomere lengthdependent pathway after replicative exhaustion (Itahana et al., 2004), or can result from stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS), caused by acute or cumulative exposure to external factors such as radiation (Meng et al.”
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“Generally, it is believed that cellular senescence is the result of some molecular changes occurred during the aging of an organism [10].”
RetractedDihydroartemisinin inhibits HepG2.2.15 proliferation by inducing cellular senescence and autophagy
Zou, J., Ma, Q., Sun, R. B., Cai, J., Liao, H., Xu, L., Xia, J., Huang, G., Yao, L., Cai, Y., et al. (2019) · BMB Reports · doi:10.5483/bmbrep.2019.52.8.058 · Cited by 41
“It could be classified into oncogene-induced senescence (OIS) (12), stress induced premature senescence (SIPS) (13), and therapy induced senescence (TIS) (14).”
Centella asiatica extracts modulate hydrogen peroxide-induced senescence in human dermal fibroblasts
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RETRACTED ARTICLE: DDB2, an Essential Mediator of Premature Senescence
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“Different stresses can induce cellular senescence, including telomere shortening, DNA damage by radiation or oxidants, disruption of heterochromatin structure and strong mitogenic signals (Itahana et al., 2004).”
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Heo, J. S., Kim, H. O., Song, S. Y., Lew, D. H., Choi, Y., & Kim, S. (2016) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2016/8196078 · Cited by 38
“Studies show that replicative senescence or cellular senescence is induced by intrinsic or extrinsic environmental factors [11].”
BackgroundExpression of senescence-related genes in human corneal endothelial cells.
Song, Z., Wang, Y., Xie, L., Zang, X., & Yin, H. (2008) · PubMed Central · Cited by 36
Pare, R., Shin, J., & Lee, C. S. (2016) · Histopathology · doi:10.1111/his.12948 · Cited by 37
“Senescence subtypes can be categorized as replicative or oncogene-induced.(2) Replicative senescence is triggered by progressive shortening of telomeres to a critical length when cells divide, whereas oncogene-induced senescence (OIS) is promoted by the activated RAS oncogene, DNA damage, or other cellular stresses.”
BackgroundAgeing, cellular senescence and the impact of diet: an overview
Maduro, A. I., Luís, C., & Soares, R. A. (2021) · Porto Biomedical Journal · doi:10.1097/j.pbj.0000000000000120 · Cited by 37
“arrest, are usually enlarged, and report some morphology alterations but are metabolically active.(18) The most common marker to detect senescent cells in vitro is the senesce-associated b-galactosidase (SA-b-gal), which is an isoform of betagalactosidase enzyme and whose activity is increased in lysosomes of senescen…”
BackgroundTelomere length analysis in goat clones and their offspring
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At the stem of youth and health
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“In contrast to quiescence, the senescence growth arrest is due to cell cycle inhibitors and is permanent, although its stringency may vary depending on the species and the genetic background of the cell (Itahana et al., 2004).”
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Disruptive chemicals, senescence and immortality
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Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation Retards the Natural Senescence of Rat Hearts
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“The most important of them encode for p16, p21, p53, and RB proteins [2].”
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“stress has thus far been regarded as an established cause of senescence [4].”
BackgroundA New Strategy for Treatment of Liver Fibrosis
Chen, S., Zheng, M., Shi, K., Yang, T., & Chen, Y. (2012) · BioDrugs · doi:10.1007/s40259-012-0005-2 · Cited by 32
Cellular Senescence and Skin Aging
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Self-citationUBTD1 induces cellular senescence through an UBTD1 –Mdm2/p53 positive feedback loop
Zhang, X.-W., Wang, X., Ni, S.-J., Qin, W., Zhao, L.-Q., Hua, R., Lu, Y.-W., Li, J., Dimri, G. P., & Guo, W. (2014) · The Journal of Pathology · doi:10.1002/path.4478 · Cited by 36
“The telomere-independent signals include cell culture conditions, DNA damage caused by radiation or chemical reagents, oncogenic or mitogenic stimuli and exogenously over-expressed tumour suppressors, such as p16, p14ARF and p21 [2,3].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSáenz, F., Ory, V., AlOtaiby, M., Rosenfield, S. M., Furlong, M., Cavalli, L. R., Johnson, M. D., Liu, X., Schlegel, R., Wellstein, A., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097666 · Cited by 31
“Although mouse epithelial cells undergo senescence with serial passage, the mechanisms of senescence differ from those of human cells [6].”
BackgroundJiang, C., Liu, X., Li, C., Qian, H.-C., Chen, D., Lai, C., & Shen, L. (2018) · Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B · doi:10.1631/jzus.b1800257 · Cited by 31
Brain cellular senescence in mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease
Dorigatti, A. O., Riordan, R., Yu, Z., Ross, G., Wang, R., Reynolds-Lallement, N. C., Magnusson, K. R., Galván, V., & Pérez, V. (2022) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-022-00531-5 · Cited by 34
“The mechanisms and functional impact of cellular senescence have been studied in in vitro models (reviewed in [15] and [16]) and some in vivo models [17, 18].”
Suppression of thioredoxin-1 induces premature senescence in normal human fibroblasts
Young, J. J., Patel, A., & Rai, P. (2010) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.01.026 · Cited by 31
“Cellular senescence is mediated by two major tumor suppressor pathways, p53 and p16 [21].”
BackgroundEman, M. R., Regan‐Klapisz, E., Pinkse, M. W. H., Koop, I. M., Haverkamp, J., Heck, A. J. R., Verkleij, A. J., & Post, J. A. (2006) · Electrophoresis · doi:10.1002/elps.200500746 · Cited by 31
PDCD4 Knockdown Induces Senescence in Hepatoma Cells by Up-Regulating the p21 Expression
Guo, J., Ozaki, I., Xia, J., Kuwashiro, T., Kojima, M., Takahashi, H., Ashida, K., Anzai, K., & Matsuhashi, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2018.00661 · Cited by 29
Tick tock, tick tock: Mouse culture and tissue aging captured by an epigenetic clock
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Telomere dysfunction: a new player in radiation sensitivity
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“Unlike human germ cells, most human somatic cells do not express telomerase and, therefore, lose telomeric DNA during each round of DNA replication.(19) Stress conditions could cause cell senescence(20) resulting from DNA damage triggered by telomere shortening through the p53-mediated signaling pathway; on the contra…”
BackgroundEarly onset senescence occurs when fibroblasts lack the glutamate–cysteine ligase modifier subunit
Chen, Y., Johansson, E., Fan, Y., Shertzer, H. G., Vasiliou, V., Nebert, D. W., & Dalton, T. P. (2009) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.05.003 · Cited by 28
“Telomeric shortening (or uncapping) is the primary cause of this process in human fibroblasts, whereas physiological stress accumulated in culture conditions is believed to be the activator of replicative senescence in mouse fibroblasts [25].”
BackgroundDenham, J. (2023) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.13836 · Cited by 28
“Rodents possess longer telomeres that undergo faster telomere attrition than human cells, yet replicative senescence is primarily limited to proliferating human somatic cells compared to extrinsic factors in rodents (Itahana et al., 2004).”
BackgroundApoptosis or senescence? Which exit route do epithelial cells and fibroblasts preferentially follow?
Georgakopoulou, E. A., Evangelou, K., Havaki, S., Townsend, P. A., Kanavaros, P., & Gorgoulis, V. G. (2016) · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · doi:10.1016/j.mad.2016.03.010 · Cited by 31
“For example, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), comprise an ideal OIS/SIPS model, as they are incapable of telomere induced senescence (Itahana et al., 2004).”
BackgroundCellular senescence induced by cathepsin X downregulation
Kraus, S., Bunsen, T., Schuster, S., Cichoń, M. A., Tacke, M., Reinheckel, T., Sommerhoff, C. P., Jochum, M., & Nägler, D. K. (2011) · European Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejcb.2011.03.008 · Cited by 29
Extension of Cell Life Span Using Exogenous Telomerase
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Metadata
- Authors
- Itahana, K., Campisi, J., & Dimri, G. P.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center (US)
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dimri, Goberdhan P.
- Venue
- Biogerontology
- Published
- 2004-02
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-10
- ISSN
- 1389-5729 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-6768
- OpenAlex
- W2036676765
- Cited by
- 338
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 2.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Biogerontology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Telomeres, Telomerase, and Senescence
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Aging › Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model Organisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer-related Molecular Pathways
- Keywords
- cellular senescence, replicative senescence, telomere shortening, p53 pathway, pRb pathway, tumor suppressor pathways, tissue of origin, senescence mechanisms
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Nuclear Proteins, Proto-Oncogene Proteins, Repressor Proteins, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53, Retinoblastoma Protein, Telomere, Cellular Senescence, Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p16, Mice, Polycomb Repressive Complex 1
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