The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 42 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 1 are not checked yet.
Antidepressants and the Placebo Effect
Open accessAbstract
Antidepressants are supposed to work by fixing a chemical imbalance, specifically, a lack of serotonin in the brain. Indeed, their supposed effectiveness is the primary evidence for the chemical imbalance theory. But analyses of the published data and the unpublished data that were hidden by drug companies reveals that most (if not all) of the benefits are due to the placebo effect. Some antidepressants increase serotonin levels, some decrease it, and some have no effect at all on serotonin. Nevertheless, they all show the same therapeutic benefit. Even the small statistical difference between antidepressants and placebos may be an enhanced placebo effect, due to the fact that most patients and doctors in clinical trials successfully break blind. The serotonin theory is as close as any theory in the history of science to having been proved wrong. Instead of curing depression, popular antidepressants may induce a biological vulnerability making people more likely to become depressed in the future.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For SSRIs, researchers have argued that a substantial portion of the perceived therapeutic benefit in double-blind randomized clinical trials (RCTs) may stem from placebo responses rather than the drug itself (Sugarman et al., 2014; Fournier et al., 2010; Kirsch, 2014; Moncrieff and Kirsch, 2015).”
From Revisiting the SSRI vs. placebo debate in the treatment of social anxiety disorder: the role of expectancy effects, neural responsivity, and monoamine transporters (2025) · cites this paper as Kirsch, 2014
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“but, since an active placebo was not used, this could be related to the “breaking of the blind effect” (Kirsch, 2014).”
From Revisiting the SSRI vs. placebo debate in the treatment of social anxiety disorder: the role of expectancy effects, neural responsivity, and monoamine transporters (2025) · cites this paper as Kirsch, 2014
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Rush, A. J., Trivedi, M. H., Wisniewski, S. R., Nierenberg, A. A., Stewart, J. W., Warden, D., Niederehe, G., Thase, M. E., Lavori, P. W., Lebowitz, B. D., et al. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1905 · Cited by 5,643
The American Journal of Psychiatry
(2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp · Cited by 2,616
Kirsch, I., Deacon, B. J., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Scoboria, A., Moore, T. J., & Johnson, B. T. (2008) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045 · Cited by 2,442
Self-citationSelective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy
Turner, E. H., Matthews, A. M., Linardatos, E., Tell, R. A., & Rosenthal, R. (2008) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmsa065779 · Cited by 2,435
Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity: A Patient-Level Meta-analysis
Fournier, J. C., DeRubeis, R. J., Hollon, S. D., Dimidjian, S., Amsterdam, J. D., Shelton, R. C., & Fawcett, J. (2010) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1943 · Cited by 2,009
Exercise Treatment for Major Depression: Maintenance of Therapeutic Benefit at 10 Months
Babyak, M., Blumenthal, J. A., Herman, S., Khatri, P., Doraiswamy, M., Moore, K., Edward Craighead, W., Baldewicz, T. T., & Ranga Krishnan, K. (2000) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200009000-00006 · Cited by 1,063
Placebos without Deception: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Kaptchuk, T. J., Friedlander, E., Kelley, J. M., Sanchez, M. N., Kokkotou, E., Singer, J. P., Kowalczykowski, M., Miller, F. G., Kirsch, I., & Lembo, A. J. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015591 · Cited by 900 · cited 2×
“My colleagues and I have tested and confirmed the hypothesis that placebos can be effective even when given openly, without deception, when given in the context of a warm therapeutic relationship and with an honest but convincing rationale as to why they should be effective (Kaptchuk et al., 2010).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationPrevalence, burden, and treatment of insomnia in primary care
(1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.10.1417 · Cited by 694 · cited 2×
“If that is the case, then the mere promise of an effective treatment should help to alleviate depression, by replacing hopelessness with hopefulness – the hope that one will recover after all.”
BackgroundMelander, H., Ahlqvist-Rastad, J., Meijer, G., & Beermann, B. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7400.1171 · Cited by 634
Treatment-Emergent Sexual Dysfunction Related to Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis
Serretti, A., & Chiesa, A. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181a5233f · Cited by 583
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Beutler L. E., 1998, Prevention & Treatment, 1, 3c
- Fountoulakis K. N., 2011, International Journal of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, 14, 405
- Kirsch I., 1998, Prevention & Treatment, 1, 7r
- Klein D. F., 1998, Prevention & Treatment, 1, 6c
- Leber P., 1998, Memoradum to the Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
- NICE, 2004, Depression: Management of depression in primary and secondary care [Clinical practice guideline 23]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–163 of 163
Benedetto, S., Ionescu, A., Ge, T., Furey, M., Lin, S., Jha, M. K., Krystal, A. D., Shah, A. A., Walling, D. P., Shah, N., et al. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000002046 · Cited by 2
[Do antidepressive agents work against depression?].
Næss, M. S. (2017) · Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening · doi:10.4045/tidsskr.17.0263 · Cited by 1
Correll, C. U., Durgam, S., Kozauer, S. G., Lakkis, H. D., Chen, C., Vanover, K. E., Mates, S. L., & Davis, R. E. (2025) · International Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/yic.0000000000000597 · Cited by 2
Depression, Folk Psychiatry and the Task for 4E Philosophy of Psychiatry
Kittel, M. (2020) · Avant · doi:10.26913/avant.2020.01.02 · Cited by 2
Does the cognitive therapy of depression rest on a mistake?
Gipps, R. G. T. (2017) · BJPsych Bulletin · doi:10.1192/pb.bp.115.052936 · Cited by 2
Of Minds and Brains and Cocreation: Psychopharmaceuticals and Modern Technological Imaginaries
Bishop, J. P. (2018) · Christian bioethics Non-Ecumenical Studies in Medical Morality · doi:10.1093/cb/cby009 · Cited by 2
Explaining Depression in Clinical Settings: Shortcomings and Dangers of Simplified Analogies
Schultz, W. (2017) · Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1891/1559-4343.19.1.51 · Cited by 2
MOOD AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP QUALITY: ARE THEY INDEPENDENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH SEXUAL FUNCTION?
Rodrigues, I. P., & Costa, R. M. (2022) · Psicologia Saúde & Doenças · doi:10.15309/22psd230109 · Cited by 2
Campos, A. I., Byrne, E. M., Iorfino, F., Fabbri, C., Hickie, I. B., Lewis, C. M., Wray, N. R., Medland, S. E., Rentería, M. E., & Martin, N. G. (2022) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32913 · Cited by 2
Serotonin and Depression. A Sceptical Eyes View
Makovec, T. (2023) · Journal of Biomedical Research & Environmental Sciences · doi:10.37871/jbres1706 · Cited by 1
Philosophical Issues in Sport Science
Ryall, E. S. T. (2020) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-03921-889-9 · Cited by 2
Furmark, T., Wahlstedt, K., & Faria, V. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531725 · Cited by 1
Physical activity associate low back pain and intervention program: Review
Ibrahim, M. A. M., Hasbollah, H. R., Ibrahim, M. A. H., Marican, N. D., Halim, M. H. B. A., Rashid, A. F. A., & Yasin, N. H. M. (2017) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.5005395 · Cited by 1
Pre-frontal stimulation does not reliably increase reward responsiveness
Hadden, L., Penny, H., Jones, A. L., Partridge, A. M., Lancaster, T. M., & Allen, C. P. G. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.11.011 · Cited by 1
Credible Sadness, Coercive Sadness
Hagen, E. H., & Syme, K. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544754.013.58 · Cited by 1
Lee, I., Lee, M., Yu, M. H., Han, E., Lee, Y., Lee, B., Kang, E. S., & Soo, B. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14051664 · Cited by 1
Evidence-based medicine and the promises and limits of digital health and wearable technology
Canali, S., Schiaffonati, V., & Aliverti, A. (2026) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2025.102097 · Cited by 1
Explaining Depression in Clinical Settings: Shortcomings and Dangers of Simplified Etiologies
Schultz, W. (2017) · Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1891/1559-4343.19.2.124 · Cited by 1
Baseline reliability and early response in clinical trials of major depressive disorder
Targum, S. D. (2020) · Medical Research Archives · doi:10.18103/mra.v8i10.2241 · Cited by 2
Regeneration at the interface of mental and physical health after trauma
Haffner‐Luntzer, M., Reber, S. O., Huber-Lang, M. S., & Ignatius, A. A. (2024) · Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cobme.2024.100545 · Cited by 1
Brain Research on Mental Disorders: A Criticism
Rossiter, J. R. (2024) · Open Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.4236/ojmp.2024.133006 · Cited by 1
P 57. Effect of Infra-Low Frequency Neurofeedback on Infra-Slow EEG Fluctuations
Grin-Yatsenko, V. A., Ponomarev, V. A., Kara, O., Wandernoth, B., Gregory, M., Ilyukhina, V. A., Kropotov, J. D., & Schneider, H. (2021) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2021.02.373 · Cited by 1
Consumption of psychotropic medicines at a referral hospital Namibia: findings and implications
Kafula, M. N., Ugburo, E. O., & Kibuule, D. (2020) · African Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.57 · Cited by 1
Female Sexual Dysfunction and the Placebo Effect: A Meta-analysis
Kingsberg, S. A., Goldstein, I., Kim, N. N., & Simon, J. A. (2018) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000002985 · Cited by 1
Editorial: Reframing the placebo effect. The importance of meaning
Perkins, R. E., & Repper, J. (2021) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-08-2021-095 · Cited by 1
In search of a better ontology of mental disorder
Köhne, A. C. J. (2022) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · doi:10.33540/1591 · Cited by 1
D’Avanzo, B., & Parabiaghi, A. (2016) · RIVISTA SPERIMENTALE DI FRENIATRIA · doi:10.3280/rsf2016-002002
Ricerca e impiego degli psicofarmaci
Maone, A. (2016) · RIVISTA SPERIMENTALE DI FRENIATRIA · doi:10.3280/rsf2016-002003
Integrative Approaches for Geriatric Depression
Mehl‐Madrona, L., Mainguy, B., & Shah, A. (2015) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b19089-31
Book Review - Promoting Law Student and Lawyer Well-Being in Australia and beyond
D'Sliva, M. (2016) · The University of Notre Dame Australia Law Review · doi:10.32613/undalr/2016.18.1.5
Selbstheilungskräfte und der Placebo-Effekt
Grams, N. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54799-1_7
Selection and measurement of control antidepressants in clinical tests for Chinese
Liu, H., Yang, Z., Geng, Y., Yang, H., De-heng, Z., Xiao, W.-D., & Wang, G. (2017) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000008327
5 Zwischen technischer und psychoanalytischer Codierung
Ronel, J., & Frick, E. (2019) · Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht eBooks · doi:10.13109/9783666403873.57
Hierarchical Inconsistencies: A Critical Assessment of Justification
Kasputis, J. (2019) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation)
Hierarchical MAP Denoising of Longitudinal Hamilton Depression Rating Scores
Koss, J., DeLorenzo, C., & Tagare, H. D. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM) · doi:10.1109/bibm52615.2021.9669362
The Explanation of Disordered Eating: A Metatheoretical Approach
Hawkins-Elder, H. (2021) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.16895614.v1 · Cited by 3
Reality Psychology Applications
McKenzie, S. P. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97170-0_13
Sánchez, O., & Brownlee-Duffeck, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56782-2_2067-2
Sánchez, O., & Brownlee-Duffeck, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_2067
La epidemia de la depresión: cuando la ciencia no se revisa a sí misma
Monterde-Fuertes, A. (2022) · ArtefaCToS Revista de estudios sobre la ciencia y la tecnología · doi:10.14201/art2022112528 · Cited by 1
РЕНЕСАНС ПСИХОДЕЛІЧНОЇ ТЕРАПІЇ ТА ЇЇ ЗНАЧЕННЯ ДЛЯ УКРАЇНИ
Matrenitsky, V. L. (2022) · Likarska sprava · doi:10.31640/2706-8803-2022-(3-4)-04 · Cited by 1
Monterde-Fuertes, A. (2022) · Eikasía Revista de Filosofía · doi:10.57027/eikasia.107.297 · Cited by 1
Irving Kirsch opens a window on antidepressant medications
Chen, E., Oliver, A. K., & Raz, A. (2023) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.2022.2121678
Social Psychology Models of Mental Function and Behavior
Hamilton, H. R., & Tennen, H. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_85-1
Cezar, L. C. (2022) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.10.2022.tde-20012023-112002
Psychopharmacology: Drugs and mental health disorders
Pratishtha (2019) · The Pharma Innovation · doi:10.22271/tpi.2019.v8.i4s.25504
Marathakam, A., Mathew, V., & Unnikrishnan, M. K. (2024) · Frontiers in clinical drug research. CNS and neurological disorders · doi:10.2174/9789815179842124120004
Epistemologia, ontologia e política Epistemology, ontology and politics
D‘Agord, M. R. D. L. (2024) · Revista Latinoamericana de Psicopatologia Fundamental · doi:10.1590/1415-4714.e24004r
Análisis de variables transdiagnósticas en el consumo problemático de alcohol y depresión en Ecuador
Sánchez-Puertas, R. N. (2024) · doi:10.48035/tesis/2454/50511 · Cited by 2
Social Psychology Models of Mental Function and Behavior
Hamilton, H. R., & Tennen, H. A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_85
Kerna, N. A., Holets, H. M., Kadivi, K., Pruitt, K. D., Carsrud, N. D. V., Jomsky, B. M., Ngwu, D. C., Flores, J. V., Nwokorie, U., Anderson, J., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Medical and Health Research · doi:10.59324/ejmhr.2024.2(5).13
Bias in Randomized Controlled Trials
Schmaling, K. B., & Kaplan, R. M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009391733.008
Schmaling, K. B., & Kaplan, R. M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009391733.006
Music versus Obstructing Our Natural Healing Powers
Koelsch, S. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009366755.011
Koelsch, S. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009366755.008
Lin, K., Hasegawa, K., Rapelli, V. R., Yang, J., Parsey, R. V., & DeLorenzo, C. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257703/v1
Treatment algorithms for treatment-resistant depression
Vaccarino, S. R., & Kennedy, S. H. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-824067-0.00006-2
Lin, K., Hasegawa, K., Rapelli, V. R., Yang, J., Parsey, R. V., & DeLorenzo, C. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-43078-7
What Happens When Psychiatry Claims Depression Is an Illness?
Read, J. (2026) · Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1891/ehpp-2026-0004
Johnston, C. H., Majoka, M. A., Macaluso, M., & Wilkinson, S. (2024) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9798894551913.lg02
The Randomization Effect in a Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Depression Study
Targum, S. D., Ceesay, P., Lines, C., Thase, M. E., Sanacora, G., & Merola, A. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000002250
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirsch, I.
- Affiliations
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kirsch, Irving
- ORCID
- Kirsch, Irving
- Venue
- Zeitschrift für Psychologie
- Publisher
- Hogrefe Publishing Group
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 222
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 128-134
- ISSN
- 0044-3409 (ISSN-L)
- 2190-8370
- 2151-2604
- PMC
- PMC4172306
- OpenAlex
- W1974098282
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 7.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Zeitschrift für Psychologie (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Pain Management and Placebo Effect
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- antidepressants, placebo effect, serotonin, chemical imbalance theory, depression, clinical trial data, publication bias, blinding, antidepressant efficacy, relapse
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
