Gender and self-esteem.

Abstract

Where does self-esteem (SE) come from? Three experiments explored the idea that men's and women's SE arise, in part, from different sources. It was hypothesized that SE is related to successfully measuring up to culturally mandated, gender-appropriate norms--separation and independence for men and connection and interdependence for women. Results from Study 1 suggested that men's SE can be linked to a individuation process in which one's personal distinguishing achievements are emphasized. Results from Study 2 suggested that women's SE can be linked to a process in which connections and attachments to important others are emphasized. Study 3 demonstrated that failing to perform well on gender-appropriate tasks engendered a defensive, compensatory reaction, but only in subjects with high SE. These findings are discussed with regard to their implications for the structure and dynamics of the self.

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   Kitayama, Shinobu, Markus, Hazel Rose, Matsumoto, Hisaya, Norasakkunkit, Vinai · 1997 · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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   Rudman, Laurie A. · 1998 · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
5. Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis.
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