The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Positive and negative global self-esteem: A substantively meaningful distinction or artifactors?
Abstract
Global self-esteem based on M. Rosenberg's (1965) scale is typically treated as a unidimensional scale. However, factor analyses suggest separate factors associated with positively and negatively worded items, and there is an ongoing debate about the substantive meaningfulness of this distinction. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to evaluate alternative 1- and 2-factor models and to test hypotheses about how the factors vary with reading ability and age. Responses based on the National Longitudinal Study of 1988 (S.J. Ingles et al., 1992) reflected a relatively unidimensional factor and method effects associated with negatively worded items. Such effects are common in rating scale responses, and this CFA approach may be useful in evaluating whether factors associated with positively and negatively worded items are substantively meaningful or artifactors.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The results of the exploratory factor analysis were considered to be due to artifacts caused by the characteristics of the Japanese language.”
From Validation of the Tinnitus Acceptance Questionnaire: Japanese Version (2022) · cites this paper as [30]
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 629
Donaldson, S. I., & Donaldson, S. I. (2020) · Journal of Well-Being Assessment · doi:10.1007/s41543-020-00033-1 · Cited by 62
To Reverse Item Orientation or Not to Reverse Item Orientation, That Is the Question
Dueber, D., Toland, M. D., Lingat, J. E. M., Love, A. M. A., Qiu, C., Wu, R., & Brown, A. V. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211017635 · Cited by 52
The Factor Structure of the 12‐item General Health Questionnaire in a Literate Kenyan Population
Abubakar, A. A., & Fischer, R. D. (2011) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1420 · Cited by 50
Evaluation of the factor structure of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in older adults
Mullen, S. P., Gothe, N. P., & McAuley, E. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.009 · Cited by 51
Verkuyten, M. (2001) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250042000339 · Cited by 52
Wang, J., Hefetz, A., & Liberman, G. (2017) · Culture and Education · doi:10.1080/11356405.2017.1367907 · Cited by 59
Is It Time to Go Positive? Assessing the Positively Worded System Usability Scale (SUS)
Kortum, P. T., Acemyan, C. Z., & Oswald, F. L. (2020) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720819881556 · Cited by 58
Dimensionality of rosenberg’s self-esteem scale among normal-technical stream students in Singapore
Ang, R. P.-H., Neubronner, M., Oh, S., & Leong, V. (2006) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-006-1007-3 · Cited by 56
Trentin, A., Perin, E., & Forza, C. (2013) · Computers in Industry · doi:10.1016/j.compind.2013.02.006 · Cited by 56
Evaluating the Wording Effect and Psychometric Properties of the Kid-KINDL
Lin, C., Luh, W., Cheng, C., Yang, A.-L., & Ma, H. (2013) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000175 · Cited by 50
Self-esteem and transformational leadership
Matzler, K., Bauer, F., & Mooradian, T. A. (2015) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-01-2013-0030 · Cited by 58
Tyumeneva, Y. A., Kardanova, E. Y., & Kuzmina, Y. V. (2017) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000424 · Cited by 51
Measurement of Subjective Quality of Life of Elders
Ranzijn, R., & Luszcz, M. A. (2000) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/4b0w-amgu-2ndx-cyuq · Cited by 50
Baumgartner, H., Weijters, B., & Pieters, R. G. M. (2018) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/0022243718811848 · Cited by 55
Sawatzky, R. G., Ratner, P. A., Johnson, J. L., Kopec, J. A., & Zumbo, B. D. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9423-4 · Cited by 53
Egger‐Rainer, A. (2018) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.13867 · Cited by 57
Swiping away the moments that make up a dull day: Narcissism, boredom, and compulsive smartphone use
Ksinan, A. J., Mališ, J., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00228-7 · Cited by 54
Wouters, E., Booysen, F., Ponnet, K. S., & Loon, F. B. V. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034881 · Cited by 48
Implications of Item Keying and Item Valence for the Investigation of Construct Dimensionality
Kam, C. C. S., & Meyer, J. P. (2015) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2015.1022640 · Cited by 47
Do Individual Response Styles Matter?
Wetzel, E., Boehnke, J. R., Carstensen, C. H., Ziegler, M. D., & Ostendorf, F. (2013) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000102 · Cited by 49
Support for a general factor of well-being
Longo, Y., Coyne, I. J., Joseph, S., & Gustavsson, P. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.082 · Cited by 48
Maranges, H. M., Hasty, C. R., Maner, J. K., & Conway, P. J. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000368 · Cited by 51
Further Support for Multidimensionality Within the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Richardson, C. G., Ratner, P. A., & Zumbo, B. D. (2009) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-009-9052-3 · Cited by 48
Steinmann, I., Strietholt, R., & Braeken, J. (2021) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000392 · Cited by 53
Olatunji, B. O., Woods, C. M., de Jong, P. J., Teachman, B. A., Sawchuk, C. N., & David, B. (2008) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2008.04.002 · Cited by 46
Wording effects and the factor structure of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12).
Molina, J., Rodrigo, M. F., Losilla, J., & Vives, J. (2014) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0036472 · Cited by 60
Gu, H., Wen, Z., & Fan, X. (2017) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2017.1286228 · Cited by 47
Measuring childhood materialism: Refining and validating Schor's Consumer Involvement Scale
Bottomley, P. A., Nairn, A. C., Kasser, T., Ferguson, Y. L., & Ormrod, J. (2010) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20353 · Cited by 46
Carvajal, S. C., Evans, R. I., Nash, S. G., & Getz, J. G. (2002) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.05010 · Cited by 46
“F*** You, I Won’t Do What You Told Me!” – Response Biases as Threats to Psychological Assessment
Ziegler, M. D. (2015) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000292 · Cited by 45
Donnellan, M. B., Ackerman, R. A., & Brecheen, C. (2015) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2015.1058268 · Cited by 43
Brescianini, S., Fagnani, C., Toccaceli, V., Medda, E., Nisticò, L., D’Ippolito, C., Alviti, S., Arnofi, A., Caffari, B., Delfino, D., et al. (2012) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2012.85 · Cited by 44
Carpenter, N. C., Son, J., Harris, T. B., Alexander, A. L., & Horner, M. T. (2016) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428116639132 · Cited by 44
Alessandri, G., Vecchione, M., Fagnani, C., Bentler, P. M., Barbaranelli, C., Medda, E., Nisticò, L., Stazi, M. A., & Caprara, G. V. (2010) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2010.510064 · Cited by 44
Psychometric Properties of the I talian Version of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire
Alessandri, G., Боргогни, Л., Consiglio, C., & Mitidieri, G. (2015) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12103 · Cited by 43
Castillo, C., Macrini, L., Cheniaux, E., & Landeira-Fernández, J. (2010) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s113874160000398x · Cited by 43
Assessing Empathy in Salvadoran High-Risk and Gang-Involved Adolescents and Young Adults
Salas‐Wright, C. P., Olate, R., & Vaughn, M. G. (2012) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x12455170 · Cited by 52
Empowered for Action? How Do Young People Relate to Environmental Challenges?
Schreiner, C., & Sjøberg, S. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-3808-9_5 · Cited by 43
Michaelides, M. P., Koutsogiorgi, C. C., & Panayiotou, G. (2015) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2015.1089248 · Cited by 42
Multiple Routes to Self- versus Other-Expression in Consumer Choice
Maimaran, M., & Simonson, I. (2011) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.4.755 · Cited by 42
Longitudinal Measurement Invariance of the Women’s Agency Scale
Cheong, Y. F., Yount, K. M., & Crandall, A. (2017) · Bulletin of Sociological Methodology/Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique · doi:10.1177/0759106317693787 · Cited by 42
Primi, R., Fruyt, F. D., Santos, D. D. D., Antonoplis, S., & John, O. P. (2019) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1080/15305058.2019.1673398 · Cited by 49
Factor Structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 11 International Samples
Halamová, J., Kanovský, M., Petrocchi, N., Moreira, H., López, A., Barnett, M. D., Yang, E., Benda, J., Brähler, E., Zeng, X., et al. (2020) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2020.1735203 · Cited by 44
Dimensionality of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment: Evaluation with the Spanish Version
Gallarin, M., & Alonso‐Arbiol, I. (2013) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2013.47 · Cited by 41
Kam, C. C. S., Hue, M. T., & Cheung, H. Y. (2018) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1454588 · Cited by 41
Social Interaction Anxiety and the Discounting of Positive Interpersonal Events
Vassilopoulos, S., & Banerjee, R. (2010) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465810000433 · Cited by 43
The Penn State Worry Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the Korean version
Lim, Y.-J., Kim, Y.-H., Lee, E.-H., & Kwon, S.-M. (2008) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20356 · Cited by 54
Carlucci, L., Watkins, M. W., Sergi, M. R., Cataldi, F., Saggino, A., & Balsamo, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02345 · Cited by 51
The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3: A confirmatory factor analysis
Markland, D. A., & Oliver, E. J. (2008) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.10.001 · Cited by 40
Abad, F. J., Sorrel, M. Á., Garcı́a, L. F., & Aluja, A. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116667547 · Cited by 39
Emotional Intelligence Across Cultures: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations
Görgens‐Ekermans, G. (2009) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-88370-0_14 · Cited by 46
Self-Esteem and Social Respect within the High School
Yelsma, P., & Yelsma, J. (1998) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224549809600398 · Cited by 40
Quality-of-life assessment in dementia: the use of DEMQOL and DEMQOL-Proxy total scores
Chua, K., Brown, A., Little, R., Matthews, D., Morton, L., Loftus, V., Watchurst, C., Tait, R., Romeo, R., & Banerjee, S. (2016) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-016-1343-1 · Cited by 42
Kam, C. C. S., & Fan, X. (2018) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428118790371 · Cited by 45
Lachowicz-Tabaczek, K., & Śniecińska, J. (2011) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.2478/v10059-011-0005-y · Cited by 35
The Vocabulary and Overclaiming Test (VOC-T)
Ziegler, M. D., Kemper, C. J., & Rammstedt, B. (2013) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000093 · Cited by 39
Acceptance: a key to wellbeing in older adults?
Ranzijn, R., & Luszcz, M. (1999) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050069908257435 · Cited by 38
Gana, K., Saada, Y., Bailly, N., Joulain, M., Hervé, C., & Alaphilippe, D. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.03.011 · Cited by 41
E-supply chain operational and behavioural perspectives: an empirical study of Malaysian SMEs
Hafeez, K., Keoy, K. H., Zairi, M., Hanneman, R. A., & Koh, S. C. L. (2009) · International Journal of Production Research · doi:10.1080/00207540903175079 · Cited by 38
Kam, C. C. S. (2016) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124115626177 · Cited by 38
Religious Fundamentalism and Psychological Well-Being: An Italian Study
Carlucci, L., Tommasi, M., Balsamo, M., Furnham, A. F., & Saggino, A. (2015) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/009164711504300103 · Cited by 38
To Balance or not to Balance: Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Affect-Balance Scale
Kim, K. A., & Mueller, D. J. (2001) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1023/a:1013519931082 · Cited by 40
Ang, R. P.-H. (2006) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.05.003 · Cited by 38
Reverse-Coded Items Do Not Work in Spanish: Data From Four Samples Using Established Measures
Venta, A. C., Bailey, C. A., Walker, J. H., Mercado, A., Colunga-Rodríguez, C., Ángel-González, M., & Dávalos-Picazo, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.828037 · Cited by 37
Brief report: Play fighting to curb self‐reported aggression in young adolescents
Carraro, A., Gobbi, E., & Moè, A. (2014) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.09.009 · Cited by 44
Michaelides, M. P., Zenger, M., Koutsogiorgi, C. C., Brähler, E., Stöbel‐Richter, Y., & Berth, H. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.011 · Cited by 40
Psychometric Characteristics of Strengths Knowledge Scale and Strengths Use Scale Among Adolescents
Duan, W., Li, J., & Mu, W. (2017) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282917705593 · Cited by 37
Oh the humanity! Humanity-esteem and its social importance
Luke, M. A., & Maio, G. R. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.03.001 · Cited by 36
Bofah, E. A.-T., & Hannula, M. S. (2015) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-015-0014-y · Cited by 39
Karaman, M. A., Vela, J. C., Aguilar, A., Saldana, K., & Montenegro, M. C. (2018) · International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling · doi:10.1007/s10447-018-9350-2 · Cited by 37
Normative Geschlechtsrollenorientierung: Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens
Athenstaedt, U. (2000) · Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie · doi:10.1024//0170-1789.21.1.91 · Cited by 36
Specific Objectivity of Mindfulness—A Rasch Analysis of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory
Sauer, S., Ziegler, M. D., Danay, E., Ives, J. A., & Kohls, N. (2012) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0145-y · Cited by 39
Ozaki, Y., & Karasawa, K. (2011) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.82.450 · Cited by 36
Wongpakaran, T., & Wongpakaran, N. (2012) · Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health · doi:10.2174/1745017901208010036 · Cited by 36
Psychometric evaluation and wording effects on the Chinese version of the parent-proxy Kid-KINDL
Lee, C., Lin, C., Tsai, M., Strong, C., & Lin, Y.-C. (2016) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-016-0526-3 · Cited by 35
Self-Esteem Among Nursing Assistants: Reliability and Validity of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
McMullen, T., & Resnick, B. M. (2013) · Journal of Nursing Measurement · doi:10.1891/1061-3749.21.2.335 · Cited by 34
Boduszek, D., Shevlin, M. E., Mallett, J., et al. (2012) · Journal of Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1108/20093821211210468 · Cited by 34
Effects of a five-day Outward Bound course on female students in Singapore
Wang, J., Liu, W. C., & Kahlid, A. (2006) · Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education · doi:10.1007/bf03400836 · Cited by 34
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Professional Opinion Scale: A Values Assessment Instrument
Abbott, A. A. (2003) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/1049731503253646 · Cited by 34
Conceptualizing and Measuring Public Stigma Toward People With Prison Records
Shi, L., Silver, J. R., & Hickert, A. O. (2022) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548221108932 · Cited by 37
Wording effects and the dimensionality of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12)
Wang, L., & Lin, W. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.024 · Cited by 33
McKay, S., Skues, J., & Williams, B. J. (2019) · Advances in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/18387357.2019.1688667 · Cited by 35
Todd, J., Swami, V., Aspell, J. E., Furnham, A. F., Horne, G., & Stieger, S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0277894 · Cited by 34
Wording Effect Leads to a Controversy over the Construct of the Social Dominance Orientation Scale
Xin, Z., & Chi, L. (2010) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2010.496672 · Cited by 33
Psychometric evaluation of the thought-action fusion scale in a large clinical sample
Meyer, J. F., & Brown, T. A. (2013) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191112436670 · Cited by 32
Should we trust survey data? Assessing response simplification and data fabrication
Blasius, J., & Thiessen, V. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.03.006 · Cited by 33
Frieder, R. E., Ferris, G. R., Perrewé, P. L., Wihler, A., & Brooks, C. D. (2019) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12336 · Cited by 32
Adapting and validating the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale for elderly Spanish population
Mayordomo, T., Gutierrez, M., & Sales, A. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610219001170 · Cited by 38
The Catch-22 of Countering a Moral Occupational Stigma in Employee-Customer Interactions
Mikolon, S., Alavi, S. H., & Reynders, A. (2020) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2018.1487 · Cited by 36
Alsuhibani, A., Shevlin, M. E., Freeman, D. H., Sheaves, B., & Bentall, R. P. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259053 · Cited by 32
Liou, P., & Kuo, P.-J. (2014) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2014.893235 · Cited by 38
Cao, Y., & Liu, Z. (2014) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.78 · Cited by 34
Bastaits, K., Ponnet, K. S., & Mortelmans, D. (2014) · Journal of Divorce & Remarriage · doi:10.1080/10502556.2014.920682 · Cited by 31
Lim, Z. X., Chua, W. L., Lim, W. S., Lim, A. Q., Chua, K. C., & Chan, E. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084639 · Cited by 31
Cognitive Appraisal as a Mechanism Linking Negative Organizational Shocks and Intentions to Leave
Biggane, J. E., Allen, D. G., Amis, J., Fugate, M., & Steinbauer, R. (2016) · Journal of Change Management · doi:10.1080/14697017.2016.1219379 · Cited by 38
The Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjustment Scales: Examination of their Validity
Müller, D. J., & Kim, K. (2004) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164403258456 · Cited by 31
Geukes, K., Harvey, J. T., Trezise, A., & Mesagno, C. (2017) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.02.008 · Cited by 35
Measuring Social Provisions for Physical Activity among Adolescent Black and White Girls
Motl, R. W., Dishman, R. K., Saunders, R. P., Dowda, M. C., & Pate, R. R. (2004) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164404263880 · Cited by 30
Development and Validation of the Social Network Addiction Scale (SNAddS-6S)
Cuadrado, E., Rojas, R., & Tabernero, C. (2020) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe10030056 · Cited by 33
Metadata
- Authors
- Marsh, H. W.
- Affiliations
- Western Sydney University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Marsh, Herbert W.
- ORCID
- Marsh, Herbert W.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 810-819
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4237817862
- Cited by
- 811
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 6.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- global self-esteem, positive self-esteem, negative self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, measurement artifacts, self-concept
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Educational Status, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Personality Development, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Reading, Self Concept, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review