The DOI matches its Crossref record; 252 of the 265 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Binge eating as escape from self-awareness
Abstract
This article proposes that binge eating is motivated by a desire to escape from self-awareness. Binge eaters suffer from high standards and expectations, especially an acute sensitivity to the difficult (perceived) demands of others. When they fall short of these standards, they develop an aversive pattern of high self-awareness, characterized by unflattering views of self and concern over how they are perceived by others. These aversive self-perceptions are accompanied by emotional distress, which often includes anxiety and depression. To escape from this unpleasant state, binge eaters attempt the cognitive response of narrowing attention to the immediate stimulus environment and avoiding broadly meaningful thought. This narrowing of attention disengages normal inhibitions against eating and fosters an uncritical acceptance of irrational beliefs and thoughts. The escape model is capable of integrating much of the available evidence about binge eating.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“It has been proposed that these skills would be useful for other clinical problems, including eating disorders, in which maladaptive coping mechanisms are used to manage negative affect [36, 37].”
From LIBER8 design and methods: An integrative intervention for loss of control eating among African American and White adolescent girls (2013) · cites this paper as [36]
In the citing paper
“maladaptive affect regulation has been used to explain emotional eating [1, 12], with findings suggesting that difficulty regulating negative emotions is positively associated with emotional eating.”
From Mindfulness facets differentially relate to self-reported negative and positive emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
Citations
Cites
Items 201–252 of 252
Biological aspects of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
Kaplan, A. S., & Woodside, D. B. (1987) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.55.5.645 · Cited by 39
Lundholm, J. K., & Littrell, J. M. (1986) · PubMed · Cited by 37
Cognitive characteristics of bulimic and drug-abusing women
Butterfield, P. S., & Leclair, S. W. (1988) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(88)90002-0 · Cited by 37
Eating disorders in a nonclinical adolescent population: implications for treatment.
Lachenmeyer, J. R., & Muni-Brander, P. (1988) · PubMed · Cited by 36
Some antecedents of regulatory eating by restrained and unrestrained eaters.
Kirschenbaum, D. S., & Tomarken, A. J. (1982) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.91.5.326 · Cited by 35
Dietary restraint: Some current findings and speculations.
Heatherton, T. F., Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1990) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/h0080580 · Cited by 35
Self-citationEvidence for an alcohol-stress link among normal weight adolescents reporting purging behavior
Killen, J. D., Taylor, C. B., Telch, M. J., Saylor, K. E., Maron, D. J., & Robinson, T. N. (1987) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198705)6:3 · Cited by 35
The topography of binge eating
Crowther, J. H., Lingswiler, V. M., & Stephens, M. A. P. (1984) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(84)90024-8 · Cited by 34
Bulimics and restrained eaters: a personality comparison
Ruderman, A. J., & Grace, P. S. (1988) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(88)90042-1 · Cited by 34
A comment on the role of dietary restraint in the development of bulimia nervosa
Charnock, D. J. K. (1989) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1989.tb00836.x · Cited by 34
Restraint and irrational cognitions
Ruderman, A. J. (1985) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90103-2 · Cited by 33
Nutrients, neurotransmitter synthesis, and the control of food intake.
Rj, W., & Wurtman, J. J. (1984) · PubMed · Cited by 32
Eating Disorders and Depression
Devlin, M. J., & Walsh, B. T. (1989) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/0048-5713-19890901-07 · Cited by 31
Palatability of sucrose before and after glucose ingestion in dieters and nondieters
Esses, V. M., & Herman, C. P. (1984) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(84)90183-5 · Cited by 31
Brownell, K. D. (1986) · Cited by 31
Bulimia, dietary restraint, and concern for dieting
Duchmann, E. G., Williamson, D. A., & Stricker, P. M. (1989) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/bf00962695 · Cited by 30
Emotional and somatic consequences of binge episodes.
Lingswiler, V. M., Crowther, J. H., & Stephens, M. (1989) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(89)90070-1 · Cited by 30
Bulimic Beliefs: Food for Thought
Bauer, B., & Anderson, W. P. (1989) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1989.tb02105.x · Cited by 30
Dieting, dissatisfaction with figure, and sex role orientation in women
van Strien, T. (1989) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198907)8:4 · Cited by 29
Comparison of outcome in hispanic and caucasian patients with anorexia nervosa
Hiebert, K. A., Felice, M. E., Wingard, D. L., MUNOZ, R. A., & Ferguson, J. M. (1988) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198809)7:5 · Cited by 29
The involvement of psychosexual factors in the causation of eating disorders: Time for a reappraisal
Scott, D. W. (1987) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198703)6:2 · Cited by 28
Responsiveness to affective stimuli by obese and normal individuals.
Pliner, P. P., Meyer, P. A., & Blankstein, K. R. (1974) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036242 · Cited by 28
The DST and TRH Test in Bulimia Nervosa
Kaplan, A. S., Garfinkel, P. E., & Brown, G. M. (1989) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.154.1.86 · Cited by 28
Restraint, bulimia, and psychopathology
Ruderman, A. J., & Grace, P. S. (1987) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(87)90035-9 · Cited by 26
The prediction of binge eating over time
Greenberg, B. R., & Harvey, P. D. (1986) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(86)90016-x · Cited by 26
Effects of increasing awareness on food consumption in obese and normal weight subjects
Pliner, P. P., & Iuppa, G. (1978) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(78)90005-9 · Cited by 26
Bulimia: Disturbed patterns of solitude
Larson, R. W., & Johnson, C. (1985) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(85)90009-7 · Cited by 25
Winick, M. (1988) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 24
Baumeister, R. F., Kahn, J., & Tice, D. M. (1990) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1990.9922943 · Cited by 23
Self-citationEffects of restraint, monitoring, and stimulus salience on eating behavior
Collins, J. E. (1978) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(78)90019-9 · Cited by 20
Emmett, S. (1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 18
Bulimarexia as symptom of sex-role strain in professional women.
Barnett, L. R. (1986) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/h0085615 · Cited by 18
Thauberger, P. C., & Sydiaha-Symor, D. (1977) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/002216787701700109 · Cited by 18
Depression and eating disorders.
Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. (1987) · Cited by 17
Eating pattern disturbances among women medical and graduate students
Futch, L. S., Wingard, D. L., & Felice, M. E. (1988) · Journal of Adolescent Health Care · doi:10.1016/0197-0070(88)90032-0 · Cited by 16
Bulimia with and without a family history of depressive illness
Mitchell, J. E., Hatsukami, D. K., Pyle, R. L., & Eckert, E. D. (1986) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0010-440x(86)90043-x · Cited by 16
Dieting: Ideology Versus Physiology
Bennett, W. I. (1984) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(18)30768-8 · Cited by 16
Eating disordered behaviors: A comparison of male and female university students
Lundholm, J. K., & Anderson, D. F. (1986) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(86)90045-6 · Cited by 14
Myocardial infarction in Jamaica: the clinical features.
TULLOCH, J. A. (1958) · PubMed · Cited by 14
Dietary restraint and binge eating: Response to Charnock
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1989) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1989.tb00837.x · Cited by 12
Avoidance of Anxiety and Eating Disorders
Keck, J. N., & Fiebert, M. S. (1986) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1986.58.2.432 · Cited by 11
Pecsok, E. H., & Fremouw, W. J. (1988) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(88)90023-8 · Cited by 11
Set point, restraint, and the limits of weight loss: A critical analysis.
Lowe, M. R. (1987) · Cited by 9
Sweetness and Eating Disorders
Rodin, J., & Reed, D. R. (1987) · ILSI human nutrition reviews · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-1429-1_13 · Cited by 7
Neurotransmitters, control of appetite, and obesity.
Wurtman, R. J. (1988) · PubMed · Cited by 7
Invited case transcript bulimia: An individual behavioral analysis
Chiodo, J. (1987) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0005-7916(87)90070-x · Cited by 6
External responsiveness in the obese
Pliner, P. P. (1976) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(76)90010-1 · Cited by 6
Chapter 6 Is It True Eating Makes You Feel Better?:
Katzman, M. A. (1989) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1300/j035v03n02_07 · Cited by 5
Pharmacologic Treatment of Bulimia Nervosa: Research Findings and Practical Suggestions
Pope, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (1989) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/0048-5713-19890901-09 · Cited by 5
Trying too hard: A correlate of eating related difficulties
Smead, V. S. (1988) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(88)90059-7 · Cited by 1
van Strien (1986) · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198602)5:2
Garner (1983) · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198321)2:2
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 · Cited by 6,686
High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x · Cited by 6,557
Self-citationNolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x · Cited by 5,172
Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review
Baer, R. A. (2003) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg015 · Cited by 4,577
Stress, eating and the reward system
Adam, T. C., & Epel, E. S. (2007) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.011 · Cited by 1,732
Metadata
- Authors
- Heatherton, T. F., & Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 86-108
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1993335407
- Cited by
- 2,259
- References
- 265
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 94 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 130 · 2020: 96 · 2019: 99 · 2018: 99 · 2017: 112 · 2016: 90 · 2015: 112 · 2014: 111 · 2013: 89 · 2012: 94
- FWCI
- 28.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- binge eating, self-awareness, self-perception, emotional distress, anxiety, depression, attentional narrowing, cognitive disengagement, irrational beliefs, social expectations, dietary habits
- MeSH terms
- Body Image, Bulimia, Defense Mechanisms, Diet, Reducing, Escape Reaction, Female, Humans, Hyperphagia, Obesity, Self Concept, Social Environment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
