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The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis

Symons, Cynthia S., Johnson, Blair T.·1997·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

In this review, the authors examine the basis for the mnemonic superiority that results from relating material to the self. A meta-analysis confirms the expected self-reference effect (SRE) in memory, with self-referent encoding strategies yielding superior memory relative to both semantic and other-referent encoding strategies. Consistent with theory and research that suggest self-reference (SR) produces both organized and elaborate processing, the SRE was smaller (a) when SR is compared with other-reference (OR) rather than semantic encoding and (b) when the comparison tasks promote both organization and elaboration. Thus, the SRE appears to result primarily because the self is a well-developed and often-used construct that promotes elaboration and organization of encoded information. The authors discuss the implications of these and other findings for theories of the SRE and for future research.

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Authors: Symons, C. S., & Johnson, B. T.
Affiliations: Houghton University (US)
Corresponding author: Symons, Cynthia S.
ORCID: Johnson, Blair T.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1997
Volume: 121
Issue: 3
Pages: 371-394
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371
OpenAlex: W2167106897
Cited by: 1,361
References: 102
Citations by year: 2026: 61 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 65 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 53
FWCI: 2.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
OpenCommons - UConn (University of Connecticut) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Syracuse University
National Institutes of Health (7k21mh001377-06)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH01377-01)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: self-reference effect, semantic encoding, elaborative processing, information organization, encoding strategies
MeSH terms: Adult, Attention, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Recall, Self Concept, Verbal Learning

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The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis

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