The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling.
Abstract
The authors present a meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling based on 448 effect sizes derivedfrom 162 research reports. There was a statistically significant tendency for women and adolescent girls to smile more than men and adolescent boys (d = 0.41). The authors hypothesized that sex differences in smiling would be larger when concerns about gender-appropriate behavior were made more conspicuous, situational constraints were absent or ambiguous, or emotion (especially negative) was salient. It was also predicted that the size of the sex difference in smiling would vary by culture and age. Moderator analysis supported these predictions. Although men tend to smile less than women, the degree to which this is so is contingent on rules and roles.
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Before this study, no empirical review had examined observed gender differences in emotions other than happiness across childhood and adolescence.
“there has been no empirical review of observed gender differences in other types of emotion expressions (e.g., negative emotions) across the period when gender differences in emotion likely develop—childhood and adolescence.”
From Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. (2013) · cites this paper as LaFrance, Hecht, & Levy Paluck, 2003
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References 332 · Cited by 514
- Authors
- LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., & Paluck, E. L.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Oracle (United States) (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2003
- Volume
- 129
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 305-334
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2104535712
- Cited by
- 514
- References
- 332
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 7.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Humor Studies and Applications
- Keywords
- smiling, sex differences, gender roles, situational constraints, negative emotions, cultural variation, age differences, adolescents, facial expressions
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Self Concept, Smiling, Social Environment, Stereotyping
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