Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review.
Open accessAbstract
Emotion expression is an important feature of healthy child development that has been found to show gender differences. However, there has been no empirical review of the literature on gender and facial, vocal, and behavioral expressions of different types of emotions in children. The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy through adolescence. We analyzed 555 effect sizes from 166 studies with a total of 21,709 participants. Significant but very small gender differences were found overall, with girls showing more positive emotions (g = -.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = -.10) than boys, and boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls. Notably, gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence, underscoring the importance of contextual factors in gender differences. Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age, with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = -.20) and adolescence (g = -.28). Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = -.27). Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions). Our findings of gender differences in emotion expression in specific contexts have important implications for gender differences in children's healthy and maladaptive development.
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- Findingown data
Gender differences in externalizing emotions were more pronounced when children were with peers or alone.
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Girls showed more positive emotions than boys in adolescence, g = −.28.
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Girls showed more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood, g = −.20.
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Boys showed fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence, g = −.27.
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The meta-analysis found statistically significant but very small overall gender differences in children's emotion expression.
“Significant, but very small, gender differences were found overall”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced when children were with unfamiliar adults.
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls in middle childhood, g = .13.
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Girls displayed more internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy) than boys, g = −.10.
“internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = −.10) than boys”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Interpersonal context moderated gender differences in emotion expression.
“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age, g = .17.
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Task valence moderated gender differences in emotion expression.
“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Gender differences in emotion expression were less pronounced when children were with parents.
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Boys displayed more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger) than girls, g = .09.
“boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Age moderated gender differences in emotion expression.
“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Gender differences in positive emotions became larger with increasing age.
“Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Negative emotion expressions showed no significant effect size in non-demand tasks.
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect size for non-demand tasks was not significant, but the effect size was significant and of small magnitude for demand tasks (g = .17, boys > girls).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of interpersonal context was not significant for positive emotion expressions.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses, the main effect of interpersonal context was significant for externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 17.17, p < .001) and negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 10.83, p < .05), but not for positive or internalizing expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of age was significant for positive emotion expressions.
“In these analyses, the main effect of age was significant for positive (Q [3, 142] = 14.62, p < .01), externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 42.89, p < .0001) and general negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 38.96, p < .0001). The main effect of age was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of age was significant for general negative emotion expressions.
“In these analyses, the main effect of age was significant for positive (Q [3, 142] = 14.62, p < .01), externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 42.89, p < .0001) and general negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 38.96, p < .0001). The main effect of age was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of demand characteristics was not significant.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses, the main effect of demand characteristics was not significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of age was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.
“In these analyses, the main effect of age was significant for positive (Q [3, 142] = 14.62, p < .01), externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 42.89, p < .0001) and general negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 38.96, p < .0001). The main effect of age was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of interpersonal context was significant for negative emotion expressions.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses, the main effect of interpersonal context was significant for externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 17.17, p < .001) and negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 10.83, p < .05), but not for positive or internalizing expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of interpersonal context was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses, the main effect of interpersonal context was significant for externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 17.17, p < .001) and negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 10.83, p < .05), but not for positive or internalizing expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Gender differences in pride expressions were not significant.
“Effect sizes for gender differences in pride and overall emotion expressions were not significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For internalizing emotion expressions, task valence remained a significant predictor (β = .23, p < .05 for positive vs. negative task).
“For internalizing emotion expressions, task valence and interpersonal context remained significant (β = .23, p < .05 for positive vs. negative task; β = −.24, p < .05 for parent vs. alone context).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For externalizing emotion expressions, age remained a significant predictor (β = .56, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent).
“For externalizing emotion expressions, age and context remained significant predictors (β = .56, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.27, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of age was significant for externalizing emotion expressions.
“In these analyses, the main effect of age was significant for positive (Q [3, 142] = 14.62, p < .01), externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 42.89, p < .0001) and general negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 38.96, p < .0001). The main effect of age was not significant for internalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Externalizing emotion expressions showed no significant effect size in demand studies.
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Gender differences in overall emotion expressions were not significant.
“Effect sizes for gender differences in pride and overall emotion expressions were not significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For externalizing emotion expressions, context remained a significant predictor (β = -.27, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).
“For externalizing emotion expressions, age and context remained significant predictors (β = .56, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.27, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
General negative emotion expressions showed no significant gender difference.
“The effect size for general negative emotions was not significant, indicating no significant differences between boys and girls in the expression of general negative emotions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Positive emotion expressions showed no significant gender differences in infancy and toddler/preschool.
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For internalizing emotion expressions, interpersonal context remained a significant predictor (β = -.24, p < .05 for parent vs. alone context).
“For internalizing emotion expressions, task valence and interpersonal context remained significant (β = .23, p < .05 for positive vs. negative task; β = −.24, p < .05 for parent vs. alone context).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For negative emotion expressions, context remained a significant predictor (β = -.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).
“For negative emotion expressions, age and context remained significant (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Internalizing emotion expressions showed no significant gender difference in adolescence.
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Internalizing emotion expressions showed no significant effect size in demand studies.
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of interpersonal context was significant for externalizing emotion expressions.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses, the main effect of interpersonal context was significant for externalizing (Q [3, 74] = 17.17, p < .001) and negative emotion expressions (Q [3, 107] = 10.83, p < .05), but not for positive or internalizing expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Externalizing emotion expressions showed no significant gender difference in infancy.
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Joy at another's expense showed a significant small to medium mean effect size favoring boys.
“Expressions of joy at another’s expense showed a significant small to medium mean effect size favoring boys.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Negative emotion expressions showed no significant effect sizes for different task types.
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect sizes for different task types did not reach significance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The main effect of valence of task was significant only for positive emotion expressions.
“In the additional ANOVA analyses comparing across the task types, the main effect of valence of task was significant only for positive emotion expressions, with Q (2, 136) = 6.90, p < .05.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For positive emotion expressions, only age remained a significant predictor in regression (β = .29, p < .001 for infant vs. adolescent).
“For the positive emotion expression category, only age remained as a significant predictor (β = .29, p < .001 for infant vs. adolescent).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
By adolescence, girls rather than boys had a tendency to express more externalizing emotions.
“An unexpected but nonetheless interesting finding was that by adolescence, girls, rather than boys, had a tendency to express more externalizing emotions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Very small to small significant effect sizes emerged for positive and internalizing emotion expressions when children were with an unfamiliar adult.
“very small to small, yet significant, effect sizes emerged for positive and internalizing emotion expressions when children were with an unfamiliar adult”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Interest showed a significant gender difference favoring girls (g = −.16).
“Of these, interest showed a significant gender difference, favoring girls (g = −.16).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Gender differences in internalizing emotion expressions appear most strongly in infancy and middle childhood, prior to the increase in depression in girls.
“It is of interest that gender differences in internalizing emotion expressions appear most strongly in infancy and in middle childhood, prior to the increase in depression in girls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A significant effect size for internalizing emotion expressions (girls > boys) was found in infancy.
“we did find a significant effect size for internalizing emotion expressions (with girls greater than boys) in infancy”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Consistent with hypotheses, significant very small to small gender differences were found for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions.
“Consistent with hypotheses, significant very small to small gender differences were found for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions in tasks that were designed to elicit negative emotions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was not a significant gender difference for the four studies that examined overall emotion expression.
“There was also not a significant gender difference for those four studies that examined overall emotion expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Overall, the meta-analysis found significant but very small gender-role consistent differences in emotion expression.
“We found evidence for significant, but very small, gender-role consistent gender differences overall”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Gender differences in emotion were moderated by interpersonal context.
“Gender differences in emotion were also moderated by interpersonal context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged for negative and externalizing emotion expressions when children were with peers.
“significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged for negative and externalizing emotion expressions when children were with peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Unexpectedly, contempt showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring girls (g = −.26).
“Unexpectedly, contempt showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring girls (g = −.26).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Unexpectedly, significant small to medium-sized gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (but not other categories) were found when children were alone.
“Unexpectedly, significant small to medium-sized gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (but not in the other emotion categories) were found in conditions when children were alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The magnitude of these gender differences varied by contextual factors, including age, interpersonal context, and task type.
“we found that the magnitude of these very small gender differences changed (becoming larger or smaller) depending on contextual factors, including age (particularly for positive, externalizing, and negative emotion expressions), interpersonal context (particularly for internalizing, externalizing and negative emotion expressions), and task type (particularly for internalizing emotion expressions).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The effect size for shame was the largest effect size found in the current meta-analysis.
“Notably, the effect size for shame was the largest effect size found in the current meta-analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The meta-analysis did not find significant gender differences for general negative emotion.
“A final limit is that we did not find significant gender differences for general negative emotion.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
By adolescence, girls expressed more externalizing emotions than boys.
“Unexpectedly, by adolescence, girls expressed more externalizing emotions than boys, an interesting shift in emotion expression patterns.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Else-Quest et al. (2006) found a very small effect in which girls were described as having higher positive mood than boys (d = −.09).
“The meta-analysis revealed a very small effect size in which girls were described as having higher levels of positive mood than boys (d= −.09).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review
Before this study, no empirical review had examined observed gender differences in emotions other than happiness across childhood and adolescence.
“there has been no empirical review of observed gender differences in other types of emotion expressions (e.g., negative emotions) across the period when gender differences in emotion likely develop—childhood and adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites LaFrance, Hecht, & Levy Paluck, 2003 source
- Premisecitation
In disappointment task studies, girls showed more cheeriness than boys in front of the experimenter.
“In studies using variations of the disappointment task, girls have been found to display less negative emotion than boys and to show more cheeriness than boys when they are in front of the experimenter (e.g., Cole, 1986; Saarni,1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Hall and Halberstadt (1986) did not find a significant gender difference in smiling among children aged 2 to 12.
“Hall and Halberstadt’s (1986) meta-analysis of children aged 2 to 12 years did not find a significant gender difference in smiling”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hall and Halberstadt’s (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In disappointment task studies, girls displayed less negative emotion than boys in front of the experimenter.
“In studies using variations of the disappointment task, girls have been found to display less negative emotion than boys and to show more cheeriness than boys when they are in front of the experimenter (e.g., Cole, 1986; Saarni,1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Else-Quest et al. (2006) found a small significant gender difference in fearfulness, with girls higher than boys (d = −.12).
“Else-Quest and colleagues (2006) found a small but significant effect size for fearfulness (but no significant differences for sadness or anger), with higher fearfulness in girls than boys (d = −.12).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Parents use more emotion words when talking with daughters than with sons.
“research shows that parents do use more emotion words when talking with daughters than sons-e.g., Kuebli & Fivush, 1992”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kuebli & Fivush, 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
LaFrance et al. (2003) found that gender differences in smiling (women > men) were smaller with a familiar person than with an unfamiliar person.
“LaFrance and colleagues (2003) found that gender differences in smiling (with women > men) were smaller when with a familiar person as compared to when with an unfamiliar person.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites LaFrance and colleagues (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Zeman and Garber (1996) found that children were more likely to report expressing negative emotions (including sadness and anger) in front of a parent or when alone than with a peer.
“Zeman and Garber (1996) found that children were more likely to report expressing negative emotions (including sadness and anger) in front of a parent or when alone than when with a peer”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zeman and Garber (1996)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Hall and Halberstadt (1986) found that the gender difference in positive emotion expressions (females higher than males) was most pronounced in negative or uncomfortable situations.
“Hall & Halberstadt’s (1986) meta-analytic review found that the gender difference in positive emotion expressions (with females higher than males) was most pronounced in negative or “uncomfortable” situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hall & Halberstadt’s (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Girls have a greater propensity to respond in ways that preserve relationships.
“girls’ greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter), consistent with female gender roles, and b) girls’ greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Davis, 1995 source
- Premisecitation
Boys have higher arousal levels than girls in infancy.
“boys have higher levels of arousal than girls in infancy”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brody, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Gender differences in emotion expression are not always found, despite the prevalent view that they are robust.
“gender differences in emotion expression (as with other behaviors) are not always found, despite the prevalent view that they are robust (Hyde, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hyde, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Meta-analyses are vulnerable to the file drawer problem, in which published studies are more likely to be those with significant effects.
“Meta-analyses are susceptible to the so-called file drawer problem (Rosenthal, 1979), by which published studies are more likely to be those that have found significant effects than not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rosenthal, 1979
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisenone given
Gender differences in emotion expression may depend on situational context, including emotional valence, social context, and demand to modulate expression.
“gender differences in emotion expression may depend on the situational context, including the emotional valence of the situation (e.g., one that is negative or positive in tone), the social context (i.e., who is present at the time), and whether the child is expected to modulate their expression of emotion to meet a social demand”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The funnel plots for each emotion expression category generally had funnel shapes, indicating that publication bias was unlikely to have influenced the meta-analytic findings.
“As Figures 1a–1d show, our plots generally had funnel shapes, indicating that publication bias was unlikely to have influenced our findings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The demand characteristics moderator did not contribute significantly to the prediction of gender differences when controlling for the other moderators.
“the demand characteristics moderator did not contribute significantly to the prediction of gender differences when controlling for the other moderators.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Boys' tendency to show more externalizing emotions than girls in early childhood and in contexts involving peers and when alone may benefit aspects of boys' social-emotional development.
“The tendency for boys to show more externalizing emotions than girls in early childhood and in contexts involving peers and when alone may benefit many aspects of boys’ social-emotional development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Boys who feel high levels of externalizing emotions may actively reduce their externalizing displays in front of unfamiliar adults to appear self-controlled and impassive.
“Then boys, who may feel high levels of externalizing emotions, may actively reduce their externalizing emotion displays when in front of unfamiliar adults in order to appear self-controlled and impassive in front of adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
For externalizing and general negative emotions, this regulation may be strongest when interacting with peers.
“For externalizing and general negative emotions, this regulation may be strongest when interacting with peers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The socialization effect appears earlier for externalizing than for positive or general negative emotion expressions.
“the findings suggest that this socialization effect appears earlier for externalizing than positive or general negative emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Contempt displays may reflect an alternative form of subtle interpersonal aggression thought to be more prevalent in girls than boys, namely relational aggression.
“Thus, contempt displays may reflect an alternative form of subtle interpersonal aggression that is thought to be more prevalent in girls than boys, namely relational aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Crick & Grotpeter, 1995 source
- Interpretationreasoning
This pattern suggests girls are more likely than boys to mask negative emotions with displays of cheeriness when there is a social demand to do so.
“This pattern of findings suggests that girls are more likely than boys to mask their negative emotions with displays of (presumably unfelt) cheeriness when there is a social demand to do so”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Most specific positive and internalizing emotion expressions showed similar patterns of gender differences, suggesting specific emotions within each category share similar gender-role influenced display rules.
“That most of the specific positive and internalizing emotion expressions showed similar patterns of gender differences may suggest that the specific emotions within each emotion category, while they have unique functions (Barrett & Campos, 1987; Izard, 1977), share similar gender-role influenced display rules.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Barrett & Campos, 1987
- cites Izard, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
If anger is expressed at a high level and to the exclusion of emotions like fear or empathy, and certain stressors are present, there could be risk for conduct problems such as aggressive behavior and disregard for rules.
“If anger is expressed at a high level and is expressed to the exclusion of emotions like fear or empathy, and certain stressors are present, there could be a risk for the development of conduct problems, such as aggressive behavior and disregard for rules of conduct (Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Cole et al., 1994 source
- cites Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The emergence of gender differences after infancy may suggest these differences are not innate but socialized.
“The emergence of gender differences in these emotion expressions after infancy may suggest that these gender differences are not innate but rather are socialized.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Girls' greater tendency to display internalizing negative emotions such as sadness, anxiety, and sympathy may contribute to their being seen as more prosocial than boys.
“Similarly, girls’ greater tendency to display internalizing negative emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, and sympathy may also contribute to their being seen as more prosocial than boys (Zahn-Waxler, 2001; Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Zahn-Waxler, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991 source
- Interpretationreasoning
The findings suggest that gender differences in emotion expression are not static fixed traits but behaviors dependent on transactions with the environment, consistent with social-constructionist theories.
“the findings suggest that gender differences in expressions of emotion may not be static and fixed traits of individuals, but behaviors that are dependent on complex transactions with the environment, consistent with social-constructionist theories of gender differences (West & Zimmerman, 1987).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites West & Zimmerman, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Context-based differences suggest girls and boys may modulate emotion expressions differently depending on situational context.
“these context-based differences suggest that girls and boys may modulate expressions of emotion differently depending on situational context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The lack of significant gender differences for general negative emotion is likely because studies of general negative emotion typically included both internalizing and externalizing emotions, which have different associated gender roles.
“This is likely because studies of general negative emotion expressions typically included both internalizing and externalizing emotions, emotions which have different associated gender roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 103
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 27
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataGirls displayed more positive emotions than boys, with a meta-analytic effect size of g = −.08.
“with girls showing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollow-up comparisons for negative emotion expressions showed a significant difference between peer and alone contexts, with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer context.
“For negative emotion expressions, follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the peer and alone contexts (Q [1, 21] = 7.80, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the alone contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSympathy expressions showed a significant very small to small effect size, with girls showing more than boys.
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between negative and neutral tasks, with stronger gender differences (girls > boys) in neutral than negative tasks.
“Follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the negative and neutral tasks (Q [1, 88] = 7.53, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (girls > boys) in the neutral than the negative tasks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size in the peer context (g = .29), with boys > girls, but not in parental or non-parental adult contexts.
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in toddler/preschool (g = -.09), with girls > boys.
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant positive small effect size in childhood (g = .13), with boys > girls.
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNegative emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in demand tasks (g = .17), with boys > girls.
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect size for non-demand tasks was not significant, but the effect size was significant and of small magnitude for demand tasks (g = .17, boys > girls).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant very small effect size in non-demand studies (g = .09), with boys > girls.
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataShame expressions showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more than boys.
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollow-up comparisons for externalizing emotion expressions showed significant differences between adolescent and infant, adolescent and toddler/preschool, and adolescent and child groups, with negative (girls > boys) effect sizes in adolescence and positive (boys > girls) in other groups.
“Follow-up comparisons for externalizing emotion expressions showed significant differences in the strength of effect sizes between the adolescent and infant groups (Q [1, 22] = 19.55, p < .0001), the adolescent and toddler/preschool groups (Q [1, 50] = 43.18, p < .0001), and the adolescent and child groups (Q [1, 22] = 31.10, p < .0001), with negative (girls > boys) effect sizes in the adolescent”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollow-up comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences between alone and non-parental adult contexts, with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) when alone than with unfamiliar adults.
“In addition, there were significant differences in effect sizes between the alone and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 33] = 9.24, p < .008), with stronger gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (boys > girls) when alone than when with unfamiliar adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor negative emotion expressions, age remained a significant predictor (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent).
“For negative emotion expressions, age and context remained significant (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant positive small effect size in toddler/preschool (g = .17), with boys > girls.
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGeneral negative emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in the peer context (g = .19), with boys > girls, but not in parental or non-parental adult contexts.
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant very small to small effect size for negative tasks (g = -.13), with girls > boys, but no significant effect for positive or neutral tasks.
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear expressions showed a significant very small to small effect size, with girls showing more than boys.
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size in adolescence (g = -.28), with girls > boys.
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in infancy (g = -.14), with girls > boys.
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAnger expressions showed a significant very small effect size, with boys higher than girls.
“anger expressions showed a significant very small effect size with boys higher than girls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size when alone (g = .28), with boys > girls.
“Additionally, a significant small to medium effect size was found for externalizing emotion expressions when alone (mean g = .28, boys > girls).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size with a non-parental adult (g = -.16), with girls > boys, but not with peers or when alone.
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant very small effect size in non-demand tasks (g = -.07), with girls > boys.
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant negative small to medium effect size in adolescence (g = -.27), with girls > boys.
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size with parents (g = -.12), with girls > boys.
“Also, for internalizing emotion expressions, a significant small-magnitude effect size was found with parents (mean g = −.12, girls > boys).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant very small effect size in non-demand studies (g = -.10), with girls > boys.
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size in demand tasks (g = -.27), with girls > boys.
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion-unspecified showed a significant small effect size, with girls showing more than boys.
“only positive emotion-unspecified showed a significant (small) effect size with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing negative emotion expressions showed a significant very small mean effect size (g = -.10), with girls expressing more than boys.
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for internalizing emotions of −.10, indicating greater internalizing emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInterest expressions showed a significant small effect size, with girls higher than boys.
“Interest expressions showed a significant small effect size, with girls higher than boys.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGeneral negative emotion expressions showed a significant negative medium effect size in adolescence (g = -.35), with girls > boys.
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant very small mean effect size (g = -.08), with girls expressing more than boys.
“there was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for positive emotions of −.08, indicating greater positive emotion expression for girls than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing negative emotion expressions showed a significant very small mean effect size (g = .09), with boys expressing more than girls.
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for externalizing emotions of .09, indicating greater externalizing emotion expressions for boys than girls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in childhood (g = -.20), with girls > boys.
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGeneral negative emotion expressions showed a significant positive small effect size in childhood (g = .14), with boys > girls.
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataExternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant very small to small effect size for negative tasks (g = .09), with boys > girls, but no significant effect for positive or neutral tasks.
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataContempt expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size, with girls higher than boys.
“contempt expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size with girls showing higher contempt than boys.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size for neutral tasks (g = -.23), with girls > boys.
“For the positive emotion category, the mean effect size was significant for the neutral task only (mean g = −.23, small magnitude).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollow-up comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences between peer and parent contexts and between peer and non-parental adult contexts, with larger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer context.
“Follow-up Bonferroni-corrected comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences in effect sizes between the peer and parent contexts (Q [1, 41] = 7.15, p < .008) and between the peer and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 34] = 10.73, p < .008), with larger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the parent and unfamiliar adult contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataInternalizing emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size in childhood (g = -.12), with girls > boys.
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPositive emotion expressions showed a significant small effect size with a non-parental adult (g = -.12), with girls > boys, but not with peers or when alone.
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBoys expressed more externalizing emotions such as anger than girls, with a very small effect size (g = .09).
“and boys expressing more externalizing emotions such as anger than girls (g = .09)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningPositive and internalizing emotion expressions, more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfamiliar adult.
“Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfamiliar adult.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataOf internalizing emotion expressions, all were in the direction of girls greater than boys, with fear and sympathy showing significant very small to small effect sizes (g's = −.10, −.13) and shame showing a significant medium effect size (g = −.56).
“Of the internalizing emotion expressions, all were in the direction of girls greater than boys, with two (fear and sympathy) showing significant very small to small effect sizes (g’s = −.10, −.13) and one (shame) showing a significant medium effect size (g = −.56).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataJoy at another's expense showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring boys (g = .29), in contrast to findings for the positive emotion expression category.
“Further, joy at another’s expense (e.g., gleeful taunting of others) showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring boys (g = .29), which is in contrast to findings for the positive emotion expression category, with greater positive emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGender differences emerged by toddler/preschool for externalizing emotion expressions and in childhood for general negative and positive emotion expressions.
“but emerged by the toddler/preschool period (for externalizing emotion expressions) and in childhood (for general negative and positive emotion expressions)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataContrary to prediction, gender differences in many emotion expressions either diminished (for internalizing) or reversed direction (for externalizing and negative) in adolescence, although gender differences were strong for positive emotion expressions at this age.
“contrary to prediction, we found that gender differences in many of the emotion expressions either diminished (for internalizing emotion expressions) or reversed direction (for externalizing and negative emotion expressions) in adolescence (although gender differences were strong for positive emotion expressions at this age)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataUnexpectedly, and contrary to past meta-analytic findings, significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions were found only in neutral tasks.
“Unexpectedly, and contrary to past meta-analytic findings (Hall & Halberstadt, 1986), we found significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions only in neutral tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hall & Halberstadt, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenGender differences typically did not emerge when children were observed with a parent, except for internalizing emotion expressions.
“gender differences typically did not emerge when children were observed with a parent (except for internalizing emotion expressions)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor externalizing emotions, gender differences (boys > girls) were virtually non-existent with parents (g = .01), but small to medium with peers (g = .29) and when alone (g = .28).
“gender differences in the expression of externalizing emotions (with boys > girls) were virtually non-existent when with parents (g = .01), but were of small to medium magnitude with peers (g = .29) and when alone (g = .28)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataEffect sizes for positive emotion expressions (girls > boys) and general negative emotion expressions (girls lower than boys) were larger in situations with a demand to minimize or mask negative emotion (g = −.27 for positive; g = .17 for negative) than in situations without this demand (g = −.07 for positive; g = .01 for negative).
“Effect sizes for positive emotion expressions (with girls greater than boys) and general negative emotion expressions (with girls lower than boys) were larger in situations with a demand to minimize or mask negative emotion (g = − .27 for positive emotion; g = .17 for negative emotion) than in situations without this demand (g = −.07 for positive; g = .01 for negative).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataOf externalizing emotion expressions, only anger showed a significant very small effect size favoring boys (g = .10), suggesting gender differences in externalizing may be driven by anger.
“Of the externalizing emotion expressions, only anger showed a significant very small effect size favoring boys (g = .10), suggesting that gender differences with boys greater than girls in externalizing emotion expressions may be driven by differences in anger.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGirls expressed more positive emotions than boys, with a very small effect size (g = −.08).
“with girls expressing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGirls expressed more internalizing negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety than boys, with a very small effect size (g = −.10).
“and more internalizing negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety (g = −.10) than boys”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions, gender differences were absent in infancy but were small to medium in middle childhood and adolescence (g's ranging from .13 to .35).
“gender differences in positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions were not present in infancy, but were of small to medium magnitude in middle childhood and adolescence (with g’s ranging from .13 to .35)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGender differences were not found in infancy for positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions, but were found for internalizing emotion expressions.
“gender differences were not found in infancy for positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions (although they were found for internalizing emotion expressions)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere was not a significant gender difference for pride expressions, although the effect size of g = .42 favored boys.
“Interestingly, there was not a significant gender difference for the three effect sizes for pride expressions, although the effect size of g = .42 favored boys.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataVery small to small effect sizes favored girls for all specific positive emotion expressions (happiness, surprise, positive emotion-unspecified), but only positive emotion-unspecified reached significance (g = −.15).
“We found very small to small magnitude effect sizes favoring girls for all of the specific emotion expressions in the positive emotion category (happiness, surprise, and positive emotion-unspecified), although the only effect size that reached significance was for positive emotion-unspecified (g = −.15).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGirls expressed more internalizing emotions (sadness, fear, sympathy, shame) than boys, particularly in negative situations and with an unfamiliar adult.
“Girls also expressed more internalizing emotions (such as sadness, fear, sympathy, and shame) than boys, particularly in negative situations and when with an unfamiliar adult.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataGirls showed greater positive emotion expressions than boys, and this difference became increasingly evident with age into adolescence and in situations with an unfamiliar adult and social pressure to mask negative emotions by appearing cheery.
“Girls showed greater positive emotion expressions than boys and this gender difference became increasingly evident as the age of the research participants increased into adolescence and in situations with an unfamiliar adult and in which there was social pressure to mask negative emotions by appearing cheery.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe meta-analysis found small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions, with larger differences emerging at certain ages and in certain contexts.
“Our findings suggest that there are small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions, with larger gender differences emerging at certain ages and in certain contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBoys showed greater externalizing emotion expressions, particularly anger, in toddler/preschool and middle childhood, in negative situations, and with peers or alone, which could contribute to boys' greater risk for conduct problems.
“Boys, in contrast, showed greater externalizing emotion expressions, particularly anger expressions, in the toddler/preschool and middle childhood periods, in negative situations, and when with peers or alone, which could contribute to boys’ greater risk for conduct problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLaFrance et al. (2003) found significant gender differences in smiling behavior among adults and adolescents, with females higher than males (d = −.41).
“LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003) meta-analysis of adults and adolescents found significant gender differences (females higher than males) in smiling behavior (d = −.41).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationElse-Quest et al. (2006) found no significant gender differences for sadness or anger.
“Else-Quest and colleagues (2006) found a small but significant effect size for fearfulness (but no significant differences for sadness or anger), with higher fearfulness in girls than boys (d = −.12).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationElse-Quest et al. (2006) did not find a significant overall gender difference for smiling behavior.
“They did not find a significant overall gender difference for smiling behavior”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMaccoby and Jacklin (1974) reported no consistent gender differences in children's expression of fear.
“Maccoby and Jacklin reported no consistent gender differences for children’s expression of fear.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Maccoby and Jacklin
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBuck (1977) found that boys' emotional expressions decreased with age from 4 to 6 years, whereas girls' expressions did not.
“Buck (1977) found that boys’ emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4–6 whereas girls’ expressions did not.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Buck (1977) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMaccoby and Jacklin (1974) reported that infant boys and girls were similar in frustration reactions.
“They reported that infant boys and girls were similar in their frustration reactions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMaccoby and Jacklin (1974) reported that girls' negative emotional outbursts diminished with age more than boys', so toddler boys showed greater frustration reactions than girls.
“girls’ negative emotional outbursts diminished with age more than boys’. As a result, toddler (18 month old) boys showed greater frustration reactions than girls.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn early childhood, boys show less language ability and inhibitory control than girls.
“in early childhood, boys show less language ability and inhibitory control than girls (see Brody, 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brody, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAs predicted, gender differences were mostly larger when children were with unfamiliar adults (for internalizing emotions) or with peers (for externalizing and negative emotions) than when with parents; unexpectedly, the gender difference was also present for externalizing emotion expressions when alone.
“In sum, as predicted, gender differences were mostly larger when children were with unfamiliar adults (for internalizing emotions) or with peers (for externalizing and negative emotions) than when they were with parents. Unexpectedly, the gender difference was also present for externalizing emotion expressions when alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAs predicted, gender-role consistent gender differences in positive and general negative emotion expressions were stronger in demand situations; this prediction did not hold for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions.
“Overall, as predicted, gender-role consistent gender differences in positive and general negative emotion expressions were stronger in demand situations. This prediction did not hold true for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThirty-eight articles (23%) were double-coded by a trained research assistant and checked for inter-rater reliability for moderator variables.
“Thirty-eight articles (23%) were double-coded by a trained research assistant and were checked for inter-rater reliability for the moderator variables.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe study used random effects models, which produce larger standard errors and reduce the probability of Type I errors.
“Random effects models produce larger standard errors, therefore reducing the probability of Type I errors (for a review of risks resulting when not using random effects models when appropriate, see Field, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Field, 2003 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationWomen have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men.
“women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men- Kring & Gordon, 1998”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kring & Gordon, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAs hypothesized, gender-role consistent gender differences in emotion expression were most pronounced in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions, at least for internalizing and externalizing emotions; unexpectedly, gender differences in positive emotion expressions were largest in neutral tasks.
“As hypothesized, gender-role consistent gender differences in emotion expression were most pronounced in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions, at least for internalizing and externalizing emotions. Unexpectedly, gender differences in positive emotion expressions were largest in neutral tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataKendall's Tau tests for funnel plot asymmetry were non-significant for positive emotion (τb = −.10), internalizing (τb = −.02), externalizing (τb = .12), and general negative (τb = −.01) emotion expression.
“Indeed, in this meta-analysis, the Kendall’s Tau values were non-significant (for positive emotion expression: τb= −.10, ns; for internalizing: τb= −.02, ns; for externalizing: τb= .12, ns; for general negative: τb= −.01, ns)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe main effect of age might be driven by a developmental transition: girls show greater positive emotion than boys by adolescence; boys show more externalizing and negative emotions than girls before adolescence, but girls show greater externalizing and negative emotions than boys in adolescence.
“This indicated that the main effect of age on gender differences in emotion expressions might be driven by a developmental transition with: 1) girls showing greater positive emotion than boys by adolescence and 2) boys showing more externalizing and negative emotions than girls prior to adolescence but girls showing greater externalizing and negative emotions than boys in adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataInter-rater reliability kappa statistics were .91 for age, .79 for emotion, .72 for task valence, and .71 for interpersonal context (mean κ = .81), indicating good reliability.
“Kappa statistics were .91 for age, .79 for emotion, .72 for task valence, and .71 for interpersonal context (mean κ = .81), indicating good reliability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationGirls have greater skill at modulating facial expressions.
“girls’ greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter), consistent with female gender roles, and b) girls’ greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Davis, 1995 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMost studies provided multiple effect sizes, violating the assumption of independence of meta-analyses.
“Most studies provided multiple effect sizes, therefore violating the assumption of independence of meta-analyses (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lipsey & Wilson, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationBoys' greater tendency to show joy at another's expense may lead to risk for conduct problems because this form of positive emotion is callous and potentially a form of aggression.
“Boys’ greater tendency to show joy at another’s expense may lead to risk for conduct problems as this form of positive emotion is callous and potentially a form of aggression (e.g., Chaplin et al., 2005; Frick, Cornell, Barry, Bodin, & Dane, 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chaplin et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Frick et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationWith parents, children may feel free to express a full range of emotions, including gender-role inconsistent emotions, leading to smaller gender differences.
“With parents, at least among children who are not in high risk conditions, children may feel free to express a full range of emotions, including gender-role inconsistent emotions (Zeman & Garber, 1996). This freedom to express any emotions would then lead to smaller gender differences in emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zeman & Garber, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe finding that girls begin to express more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to be more expressive overall or a recent change in gender roles for adolescent girls.
“The finding that girls begin to express more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to be more expressive of emotions overall than boys as they reach adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for adolescent girls.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brown, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataUnder Orwin's procedure with a mean effect size of .05, 146 additional positive, 109 additional internalizing, and 62.4 additional externalizing effect sizes would be needed to make the significant effects non-significant, about twice as many as in the meta-analysis.
“We would need 146 more positive, 109 more internalizing, and 62.4 externalizing effect sizes, or about twice as many effect sizes as are in the present meta-analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningA well-developed sense of assertiveness and self-efficacy may protect boys against depression and anxiety, contributing to boys' lower rates of these disorders.
“In addition to facilitating healthy development, a well-developed sense of assertiveness and self-efficacy may also protect boys against depression and anxiety, contributing to boys’ lower rates of these disorders.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningNegative tasks may elicit greater amounts of sadness, fear, anger, and other internalizing and externalizing emotions, resulting in a greater range and ability to detect gender differences.
“Negative tasks may elicit greater amounts of sadness, fear, anger, and other internalizing and externalizing emotions, resulting in a greater range and greater ability to detect gender differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationWhen interacting with less familiar individuals, children may regulate emotion expressions to conform to societal gender roles, leading to greater gender differences.
“when interacting with individuals whom children do not know as well, children may regulate their emotion expressions to conform to societal gender roles (La France et al., 2003), leading to greater gender differences in emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites La France et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGirls' greater propensity to display positive emotion with unfamiliar adults and to mask negative emotions when the situation calls for it may contribute to and be influenced by their intention and ability to please adults and behave prosocially.
“Girls’ greater propensity to display positive emotion when interacting with unfamiliar adults, and their greater tendency to mask negative emotions when the situation calls for it (such as when receiving a disappointing gift), may contribute to and be influenced by their intention and ability to please adults and to behave in prosocial ways.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe many changes of adolescence, including physiological and social changes, may bring about an increase in internalizing emotion expressions for both boys and girls, attenuating gender differences for this category.
“It is possible that the many changes of adolescence, including physiological (e.g., puberty) and social (e.g., at school and in the peer group), bring about an increase in internalizing emotion expressions for both boys and girls, attenuating gender differences for this emotion category.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGirls may both express and experience higher shame than boys.
“Thus, girls may both express and experience higher shame than boys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThe gender difference in externalizing emotion expressions (boys > girls) when alone could reflect a tendency for boys to experience more externalizing emotions than girls.
“The gender difference in externalizing emotion expressions (with boys > girls) when alone could reflect a tendency for boys to experience more externalizing emotions than girls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningBoys' modulated anger expressions may facilitate the development of assertiveness, persistence, and self-efficacy.
“Boys’ modulated anger expressions may facilitate the development of assertiveness, persistence, and self-efficacy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationGirls' greater sadness, sympathy/empathic concern, and shame expressions, if taken to an extreme, may be a risk for depression and may contribute to girls' increases in depression in adolescence.
“In addition, girls’ greater sadness, sympathy/empathic concern, and shame expressions, if taken to an extreme, may be a risk for depression (e.g., Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999) and may contribute to girls’ increases in depression in adolescence (Hankin, et al., 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Hankin et al., 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningGirls' more frequent displays of positive emotions may reflect their propensity to engage new persons socially, foster interpersonal harmony, and appease adults.
“Girls’ more frequent displays of positive emotions may reflect their propensity to engage new persons socially, to foster interpersonal harmony, and to appease adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationAn alternate explanation is that girls' experience in reducing anger and externalizing expressions when with peers and non-parental adults carries over to alone situations, leading to lower externalizing expressions in girls than boys.
“An alternate explanation for our findings could be that girls’ experience in reducing anger and other externalizing emotion expressions when with peers and non-parental adults, at least prior to adolescence, carries over to situations when girls are alone, leading to gender differences in the alone context with girls lower than boys in externalizing expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBoys' greater externalizing and general negative emotions when with peers may help them negotiate peer relationships assertively and protect against peer pressure.
“It is notable that boys show greater externalizing (and general negative) emotions than girls when with peers as this may help them to negotiate peer relationships in an assertive manner and could protect them against succumbing to peer pressure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningIf true, this would suggest boys may have good regulatory abilities for externalizing emotions.
“If true, this would suggest that boys may indeed have good regulatory abilities for externalizing emotions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataPositive and negative tasks may not elicit gender differences for joy and other positive emotion expressions; instead these are found in neutral tasks.
“This suggests that positive and negative tasks may not elicit gender differences for joy and other positive emotion expressions and instead these are found in neutral tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataGender differences in some emotion expressions may begin quite early and may be either innate or due to very early socialization responses of caregivers.
“which may further suggest that gender differences in some emotion expressions may begin quite early and may be either innate or due to very early socialization responses of caregivers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis may suggest girls are better at regulating emotion to meet social demands and/or more motivated than boys to cover up negative emotions with positive emotions to protect another's feelings.
“This may suggest that girls are better at regulating emotion to meet social demands and/or that they are more motivated than boys to cover up negative emotions with positive emotions in order to protect another’s feelings”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGirls' greater tendency to express positive emotions may contribute to and be influenced by their greater prosocial behavior than boys.
“Girls’ greater tendency to express positive emotions may contribute to and be influenced by their greater prosocial behavior than boys.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationBoys' greater rates of externalizing emotion expressions such as anger in toddler/preschool years may be one contributing factor to higher rates of behavior problems in boys, a gender difference that appears around toddler/preschool age.
“Boys’ greater rates of externalizing emotion expressions such as anger in the toddler/preschool years may be one contributing factor to the higher rates of behavior problems in boys, a gender difference that notably appears around the toddler/preschool age (Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Keenan & Shaw, 1997 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationFor adolescent girls who account for the gender difference in externalizing emotion expression, there may be risk, such as links between alcohol/drug use and using anger to cope with stressors.
“For those adolescent girls who account for the gender difference in externalizing emotions expression, there may be risk. For example, alcohol and drug use, which are on the rise in adolescent girls (Amaro et al., 2001), have been linked to the use of anger to cope with stressors (Wills, DuHamel, & Vaccaro, 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Amaro et al., 2001 source
- cites Wills et al., 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAn excessive tendency to display internalizing emotions may be a risk factor for psychological problems; for example, responding to stress with high fear and anxiety may lead to risk for anxiety disorders, which are more common in girls.
“And, as with positive emotions, an excessive tendency to display internalizing emotions may be a risk factor for certain psychological problems. For example, if one responds to stress by experiencing and expressing high levels of fear and anxiety, this pattern may lead to risk for the development of anxiety disorders, several of which are more common for girls than boys (Ollendick & Yule, 1990).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ollendick & Yule, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationBoys may be more inclined to express anger-related emotions than girls with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough and tumble play.
“Boys may be more inclined to express anger-related emotions than girls with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough and tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rose & Rudolph, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationGirls' efforts to appear cheerful even when unfelt may confer risk; if they internalize distress rather than express it, this could increase propensity for depression.
“At the same time, girls’ (and women’s) efforts to be cheery, even when this cheeriness is unfelt (as in the “demand” tasks) may also confer risk (Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Keenan & Hipwell, 2005; Zahn-Waxler, Cole, & Barrett, 1991). If girls attempt to appear cheerful even when they are not, they may internalize feelings of distress rather than express them to achieve their goals for well-being, which”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Keenan & Hipwell, 2005 source
- cites Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe gender difference found in infancy for internalizing emotion expressions may not reflect gender differences in internal experience of internalizing emotions per se, but may reflect differences in negative emotions more generally or other non-emotional states.
“the gender difference found in infancy for internalizing emotion expressions may not reflect gender differences in the internal experience of internalizing emotions per se, but instead may reflect differences in negative emotions more generally or differences in some other non-emotional state.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGirls' patterns of emotion expression may contribute to their greater prosociality than boys, but could also confer risk increasing girls' likelihood of developing depression and anxiety symptoms.
“Girls’ patterns of emotion expression may contribute to their greater prosociality than boys. However, this pattern could also confer risk that increases girls’ likelihood of developing symptoms of depression and anxiety.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationGender differences have been found for some traits in adulthood, with women reporting greater anxiety/neuroticism and gregariousness and men reporting greater assertiveness; these differences parallel the meta-analytic findings for internalizing, positive, and externalizing emotion expressions.
“gender differences have been found for some traits in adulthood, with women reporting somewhat greater anxiety/neuroticism and gregariousness than men and men reporting greater assertiveness than women (Feingold, 1994); differences that parallel our findings of gender differences in internalizing, positive, and externalizing emotion expressions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Feingold, 1994 source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningA number of studies were excluded because authors did not provide enough information to calculate effect sizes, which could have biased results because studies with null results sometimes leave out this information.
“There also were a number of studies that were excluded because the authors did not provide enough information to calculate effect sizes. This could have biased our results because studies with null results sometimes leave out this information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenThe review was limited to observational studies of emotion expression.
“our review was limited to observational studies of emotion expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAmong children of Asian heritage, there may be socialization pressure for all children to control emotions, potentially leading both girls and boys to suppress emotion expressions and attenuating the ability to detect gender differences.
“For example, among children of Asian heritage there may be socialization pressure for all children to control emotions, potentially leading both girls and boys to suppress emotion expressions, possibly attenuating the ability to detect gender differences (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cole & Tan, 2007
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe review did not assess gender differences in strategies used to regulate emotion.
“Our review was also limited to studies of emotion expression and did not assess gender differences in strategies used to regulate emotion.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe authors attempted to counter this bias by including all studies of emotion expression, not just those that examined gender differences.
“We attempted to counter this bias by including all studies of emotion expression, not just those that examined gender differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThere were small cell sizes in some analyses, particularly relatively few observational studies of emotion in adolescents.
“Another limitation of this review is the small cell sizes in some of our analyses. In particular, there were relatively few observational studies of emotion in adolescents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe findings underscore the importance of examining contextual factors influencing gender differences in emotion expressions across child and adolescent development.
“Overall, our findings underscore the importance of examining contextual factors influencing gender differences in emotion expressions across child and adolescent development.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPersonality traits such as neuroticism and extraversion are related to individual differences in patterns of emotion experience and expression.
“Personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion, are related to individual differences in patterns of emotion experience and expression (Revelle & Scherer, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Revelle & Scherer, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataMost studies in the meta-analysis consisted of primarily Caucasian samples, preventing examination of differences between ethnic groups.
“most of the studies in the present meta-analysis consisted of primarily Caucasian samples, which prevented us from examining differences between ethnic groups”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationGender roles for emotion expression may differ in different ethnic groups.
“which is important, since gender roles for emotion expression may differ in different ethnic groups (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cole & Tan, 2007
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe review included studies that measured emotion expression in various ways (frequency, duration, intensity) and could not disentangle these measurements.
“our review included studies that measured emotion expression in a variety of ways, including the frequency, duration, and intensity of expression. It was not possible to disentangle these different measurements in the present study”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThere is great variability not only between boys and girls but also within boys and girls in emotion expression.
“As in all studies of gender differences, it is important to note that there is great variability not only between boys and girls, but also within boys and girls (see Hyde, 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hyde, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
Observed emotional expression is studied less often than self- or parent-report, and when observed, it does not consistently show gender differences.
“Observations of emotional expression are less commonly conducted; and when they are, the observed emotions do not always show such consistent gender differences”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.
“We assumed that our effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies.
“as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A recent review shows that sex differences in expression of various emotions only begin to emerge through school-age and adolescence.
“A recent review on emotional expressions in childhood and adolescence shows that the sex differences in expression of various emotions only begin to emerge through school-age and adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Discussion (Age; page not provided) reports that differences in positive and general negative emotion expression emerged in childhood, supporting part of the claim. But it also reports differences in internalizing emotions in infancy and externalizing emotions by the toddler/preschool period, so they did not only begin in school age or adolescence. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSome studies indicated no sex differences in negative emotions such as self-reported anger, negative emotion, and powerful emotions.
“However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results (Hypothesis 1; page unavailable) report no significant sex difference in observed general negative emotion expression in children. The same section reports a significant, though very small, difference in observed anger expression favoring boys. The paper examines observed expressions rather than self-reported anger, and these passages do not address “powerful emotions.” (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFemales reported higher levels of internalizing emotions such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear than males, with SMDs of 0.12-1.11.
“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results and Discussion report that girls showed more observed internalizing emotion expressions than boys, including fear and shame. But this meta-analysis concerns observed expressions, not females’ self-reported levels; the Method says guilt could not be analyzed, and it does not establish the claim about crying or the stated SMD range of 0.12–1.11. The Discussion mentions a separate meta-analysis of self-reported shame and guilt, but that does not support attributing the full claim to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor negative emotions where females score higher, higher living conditions predict that females express and feel even more negative emotions such as guilt and crying compared with men.
“For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results (Hypothesis 1; page not provided) find that girls expressed slightly more internalizing negative emotions than boys, and the Discussion (The Role of Specific Emotions; page not provided) reports higher self-reported guilt among adolescent females. The paper does not establish that higher living conditions predict a larger difference, nor does it report that females both express and feel more guilt and crying under those conditions. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWomen have higher levels of happiness and smile more than men, with SMD = 0.10.
“For Positive emotions, women have higher levels of happiness and smile more (SMD = 0.10; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results (Hypothesis 1; page unavailable) report that girls aged 0–17 expressed slightly more positive emotion than boys, with Hedges’ g = −0.08. The paper does not establish higher happiness levels in women or a significant difference specifically in smiling; its reported effect is not SMD = 0.10. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
For measures with no sex difference, no clear pattern can be seen with living conditions.
“Finally, no clear pattern can be seen for measures for which there is no sex difference (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results (Hypothesis 1; page not provided) report no significant sex difference for general negative emotion expressions, supporting the claim that some measures show no sex difference. The paper examines age, interpersonal context and task characteristics, but does not assess living conditions or report whether measures without sex differences follow a pattern across them. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDifferences between boys and girls in emotional expression are influenced by contextual factors; they are almost absent when children interact with parents, but become significant during interaction with unfamiliar adults or peers.
“These differences are influenced by contextual factors; differences between boys and girls are almost absent when the children interact with parents, but become significant during interaction with unfamiliar adults or peers (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness than females, with SMDs of 0.07-0.11.
“whereas males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness (SMDs = 0.07–0.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
For the single new-analysis study on positive emotions where females scored higher, sex differences were smaller in countries with higher living conditions.
“However, for the single study analyzed in the new analyses, in which females scored higher (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), sex differences were smaller in countries with higher living conditions.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
For self-reported anger and brow furrowing, larger sex differences are present in countries with higher living conditions.
“if anything, an opposite pattern seems to be present for self-reported anger and brow furrowing, that is, there are larger sex differences in countries with higher living conditions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The Results report a small gender difference in observed anger expression, and Method > Study Coding mentions furrowed brows as a cue for anger. Neither passage addresses self-reported anger or whether sex differences vary with countries’ living conditions; searches for those terms found no such analysis in our copy. Page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn low-risk children, a small female advantage in social affect, e.g., more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected.
“In low-risk children, a small female advantage in social affect, e.g., more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected [41].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [41]
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“This tendency to minimize interpersonal tension, including through nonverbal emotional expression , is consistent with female gender roles to be relationship oriented, to care for others, and to manage emotions in the service of others (Hochschild, 1983).”
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Hyde, J. S. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.6.581 · Cited by 3,084 · see citing works
Fixed-and random-effects models in meta-analysis.
Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.486 · Cited by 2,977 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
MethodParental Socialization of Emotion.
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A. J., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1 · Cited by 2,693 · see citing works
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 · Cited by 2,517 · see citing works
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Raudenbush, S. W., Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1991) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2289738 · Cited by 2,363 · see citing works
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.1.128 · Cited by 2,333 · see citing works
Handbook of infant development
Osofsky, J. D. (1979) · Cited by 2,270 · see citing works
Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis.
Feingold, A. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.429 · Cited by 2,240 · see citing works
Leon, R. L. (1974) · Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)61341-8 · Cited by 2,081 · see citing works
A Fail-Safe N for Effect Size in Meta-Analysis
Orwin, R. G. (1983) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164923 · Cited by 2,064 · see citing works
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,063 · see citing works
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.x · Cited by 2,013 · see citing works
Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective.
Kopp, C. B. (1982) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199 · Cited by 1,923 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As children develop through the school age years, they gain in their ability to modulate emotional expression (Kopp, 1982).”
BackgroundMeta-Analysis: Recent Developments in Quantitative Methods for Literature Reviews
Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.59 · Cited by 1,780 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
MethodThe Development of Emotional Competence
Saarni, C. I. (1999) · Cited by 1,671 · see citing works
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00337 · Cited by 1,580 · see citing works
Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders
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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061 · Cited by 1,543 · see citing works
Gender and relationships: A developmental account.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.45.4.513 · Cited by 1,430 · see citing works
The Psychology of Sex Differences: —Vol. I: Text
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Lewis, M. D., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (2000) · Cited by 1,305 · see citing works
Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
Gross, J. (1999) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999399379186 · Cited by 1,299 · see citing works
Gender and relationships: A developmental account.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.4.513 · Cited by 1,294 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In their classic narrative review of gender differences in childhood, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) examined gender differences in two types of emotion expressions: frustration reactions (outbursts of negative emotions such as anger or crying in response to frustrating situations) and fear. They reported that infant boys…”
BackgroundInfluentialSex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology.
Kring, A. M., & Gordon, A. H. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.3.686 · Cited by 1,289 · see citing works
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTION REGULATION AND DYSREGULATION: A CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (2008) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01278.x · Cited by 1,273 · see citing works
Parents' differential socialization of boys and girls: a meta-analysis
Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.267 · Cited by 1,210 · see citing works
Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior.
Deaux, K., & Major, B. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.369 · Cited by 1,173 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In other words, gender differences emerge when " perceivers [others] emit expectancies, targets (selves) negotiate their own identities, and the context in which interaction occurs shapes the resultant behavior " (Deaux & Major, 1987, p. 369).”
BackgroundGender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33 · Cited by 1,169 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) also examined positive mood, as assessed by questionnaires.”
BackgroundAffect, imagery, consciousness, Vol. 1: The positive affects.
Tomkins, S. S. (1992) · doi:10.1037/14351-000 · Cited by 1,153 · see citing works
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (2009) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243208326529 · Cited by 1,135 · see citing works
The Intensification of Gender-Related Role Expectations during Early Adolescence
Hill, J. P., & Lynch, M. E. (1983) · Girls at Puberty · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0354-9_10 · Cited by 1,097 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, the social, biological, and cognitive changes associated with adolescence may contribute to an increased emphasis on the importance of behaving according to gender roles, as youths become increasingly aware of larger society and their roles in it (e.g., Hill & Lynch, 1983).”
BackgroundDisorders of Childhood and Adolescence: Gender and Psychopathology
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091358 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology.
Kring, A. M., & Gordon, A. H. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.686 · Cited by 1,067 · see citing works
McClure, E. B. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.424 · Cited by 1,032 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, girls are more empathic, have better social skills, and are better able to read others’ emotions and behaviors than boys (McClure, 2000; Zahn-Waxler, Shirtcliff, & Marceau, 2008).”
BackgroundBonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00705.x · Cited by 969 · see citing works
The Future of Emotion Regulation Research: Capturing Context
Aldao, A. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612459518 · Cited by 948 · see citing works
Self-citationA meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression
Hallion, L. S., & Ruscio, A. M. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0024355 · Cited by 891 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Hedges's g can be interpreted using the same conventions as Cohen's d (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011).”
MethodBuck, R. W. (1984) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 870 · see citing works
Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt.
Lewis, M. (2008) · Cited by 852 · see citing works
Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00150 · Cited by 801 · see citing works
A Schematic Processing Model of Sex Typing and Stereotyping in Children
Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1981) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129498 · Cited by 800 · cited 1× · see citing works
“According to this theory, boys and girls develop cognitive schemas for gender based on observing their environments (Martin & Halverson, 1981).”
BackgroundProneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. H. (1992) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.101.3.469 · Cited by 793 · see citing works
Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior.
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.95 · Cited by 756 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Within this socialization, caregivers may socialize gender-role-consistent display rules for emotion (e.g., Chaplin, Casey, Sinha, & Mayes, 2010), which may lead to gender differences in emotion expressions and other behaviors emerging at this time (e.g., Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
BackgroundFrick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Barry, C. T., Bodin, S. D., & Dane, H. E. (2003) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1023899703866 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
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Sex Differences in Brain Maturation during Childhood and Adolescence
De Bellis, M. D. (2001) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/11.6.552 · Cited by 728 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Also, hormonal changes during puberty may trigger changes in emotion-related neural circuitry differently for boys and girls, further contributing to gender differences in emotion expression (e.g., De Bellis et al., 2001).”
BackgroundInhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children
Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.002 · Cited by 701 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.23 50 51 Infant w Parent Neg No Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning Display Rules: The Socialization of Emotion Expression in Infancy
Malatesta, C. Z., & Haviland, J. M. (1982) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129139 · Cited by 696 · see citing works
Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400006301 · Cited by 665 · see citing works
The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation
(1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663963 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
The Psychology of Gender: Advances through Meta-Analysis
Halpern, D. F., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1989) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422961 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Parental Socialization of Emotion Expression: Gender Differences and Relations to Child Adjustment.
Chaplin, T. M., Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2005) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.80 · Cited by 594 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…consistent with this notion, a later study found that boys decreased in sadness/ anxiety expression during a frustrating game from preschool to early school age, leading to larger gender differences (girls greater than boys) in sadness/anxiety expression by early school age (Chaplin et al., 2005a).”
ResultSelf-citationThe developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions.
Knafo‐Noam, A., Zahn‐Waxler, C., Hulle, C. V., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0014179 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Self Development and Self-Conscious Emotions
Lewis, M. B., Sullivan, M. W., Stanger, C., & Weiss, M. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131080 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
The development of empathy in twins.
Zahn‐Waxler, C., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.6.1038 · Cited by 546 · see citing works
Three-Month-Old Infants' Reaction to Simulated Maternal Depression
Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. Z. (1983) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129876 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Brand, J. L. (1997) · Digital Commons - Andrews University (Andrews University) · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Patterns of emotions a new analysis of anxiety and depression
Izard, C. E., Bartlett, E. S., & Marshall, A. G. (1972) · Cited by 534 · see citing works
The relations of regulation and emotionality to problem behavior in elementary school children
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Maszk, P., Holmgren, R., & Suh, K. (1996) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457940000701x · Cited by 520 · see citing works
The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling.
LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., & Paluck, E. L. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.305 · Cited by 514 · see citing works
The Development of Emotion Expression during the First Two Years of Life
Malatesta, C. Z., Culver, C., Tesman, J. R., Shepard, B., Fogel, A., Reimers, M., & Zivin, G. (1989) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166153 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching
Zeman, J. L., & Garber, J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01776.x · Cited by 487 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Zeman and Garber (1996) found that children were more likely to report expressing negative emotions (including sadness and anger) in front of a parent or when alone than when with a peer; this was because of an expectation that parents would respond to these emotions with acceptance, whereas peers…”
BackgroundChildren's Spontaneous Control of Facial Expression
Cole, P. M. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130411 · Cited by 477 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In studies using variations of the disappointment task, girls have been found to display less negative emotion than boys and to show more cheeriness than boys when they are in front of the experimenter (e.g., Cole, 1986; Saarni, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers.
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014322 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.
Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027930 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
An Observational Study of Children's Attempts to Monitor Their Expressive Behavior
Saarni, C. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130020 · Cited by 453 · cited 2× · see citing works
“For example, in the disappointment task (e.g., Saarni, 1984), school-age children are given an undesirable gift by an experimenter.”
BackgroundGender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy.
Weinberg, M. K., Tronick, E. Z., Cohn, J. F., & Olson, K. L. (1999) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.35.1.175 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., Relyea, N., & Simons, R. F. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00460 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression
Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davis, B., & Andrews, J. (1997) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1025768504415 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
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The Relations of Emotionality and Regulation to Children's Anger-related Reactions
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00738.x · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187 · Cited by 368 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In social-developmental theories, it is proposed that children learn gender-role-consistent behaviors over time through cognitive learning, socialization, and experience (for a review, see Liben & Bigler, 2002).”
BackgroundLewis, M., & Rosenblum, L. A. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
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Moore, G. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1068 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Young Children's Coping with Interpersonal Anger
Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb03600.x · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Speaking from the heart: gender and the social meaning of emotion
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3710 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
(1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Behavioral and Physiological Correlates of Children's Reactions to Others in Distress
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Eisenbud, L. (1993) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.655 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Izard, C. E., King, K. A., Trentacosta, C. J., Morgan, J. K., Laurenceau, J., Ewing, E. S. K., & Finlon, K. J. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000175 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Cole, P. M., Teti, L. O., & Zahn‐Waxler, C. (2003) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579403000014 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Infants' responses to facial and vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm.
Mumme, D. L., Fernald, A., & Herrera, C. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01910.x · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Brody, L. R. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628191.003 · Cited by 307 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Brody (1999, 2000) proposed that gender differences in emotions develop based on a combination of innate predispositions and socialization by parents, teachers, and peers into the cultural gender roles described above.”
BackgroundRegulation, Emotionality, and Preschoolers' Socially Competent Peer Interactions
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Jones, S., Smith, M. C., Guthrie, I. K., Poulin, R., Shepard, S. A., & Friedman, J. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00031 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching
Zeman, J. L., & Garber, J. E. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131873 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Expressive control during a disappointment: Variations related to preschoolers' behavior problems.
Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Smith, K. D. (1994) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.835 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
On the relative effectiveness of affect regulation strategies: A meta-analysis
Augustine, A. A., & Hemenover, S. H. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930802396556 · Cited by 292 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We addressed this problem by narrowing our definition of the construct (Aldao et al., 2010; Augustine & Hemenover, 2009; Thomas, Vartanian, & Brownell, 2009).”
BackgroundSheeber, L., Davis, B., Leve, C. S., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. A. (2007) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.116.1.144 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Parental socialization of children's dysregulated expression of emotion and externalizing problems.
Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Shepard, S. A., Poulin, R., & Padgett, S. J. (2001) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.2.183 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Moore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. J. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01255.x · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Toddler self-regulation skills predict risk for pediatric obesity
Graziano, P. A., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.288 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Thomas, J. J., Vartanian, L. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0015326 · Cited by 263 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We addressed this problem by narrowing our definition of the construct (Aldao et al., 2010; Augustine & Hemenover, 2009; Thomas, Vartanian, & Brownell, 2009).”
BackgroundEmotion Dysregulation as a Risk Factor for Child Psychopathology
Keenan, K. E. (2000) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.7.4.418 · Cited by 261 · cited 2× · see citing works
“For example, an individual’s ability to be emotionally aware and appropriately communicative of feelings is a hallmark not only of socioemotional competence but also of mental health (Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995; Gross, 1999; Keenan, 2000).”
BackgroundGender, emotion, and the family
Brody, L. R. (1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-2450 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Emotional Development in Children with Different Attachment Histories: The First Three Years
Kochanska, G. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00291 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Leaper, C., & Smith, T. E. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.993 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
You Can't Always Get What You Want
Kieras, J. E., Tobin, R. M., Graziano, W. G., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01546.x · Cited by 253 · see citing works
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Izard, C. E., & Malatesta, C. Z. (1987) · Cited by 250 · see citing works
The Relations of Parental Characteristics and Practices to Children's Vicarious Emotional Responding
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Schaller, M., Carlo, G., & Miller, P. A. (1991) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01613.x · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Speaking from the Heart: Gender and the Social Meaning of Emotion
Grills, S., & Shields, S. A. (2004) · The Canadian Journal of Sociology · doi:10.2307/3341953 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
The Problems in Using Fixed-Effects Models of Meta-Analysis on Real-World Data
Field, A. P. (2003) · Understanding Statistics · doi:10.1207/s15328031us0202_02 · Cited by 237 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodTomkins, S. S., & Karon, B. P. (1963) · Springer eBooks · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Differences in Shame and Pride as a Function of Children's Gender and Task Difficulty
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131351 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P. M., & Barrett, K. C. (1991) · The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663963.012 · Cited by 231 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Similarly, girls’ greater tendency to display internalizing negative emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, and sympathy, may also contribute to their being seen as more prosocial than boys (ZahnWaxler, 2001; Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991).”
BackgroundWhich fearful toddlers should we worry about? Context, fear regulation, and anxiety risk.
Buss, K. A. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023227 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Infant and Maternal Behaviors Regulate Infant Reactivity to Novelty at 6 Months.
Crockenberg, S., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1123 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Conradt, E. D., & Ablow, J. C. (2010) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.01.001 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
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Childhood precursors of schizophrenia: facial expressions of emotion
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Individual differences in emotion regulation and behavior problems in preschool children.
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The Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences
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All smiles are positive, but some smiles are more positive than others.
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“…is theorized that parents encourage emotions in their young girls, talking to them about emotions because of girls' larger vocabularies and more communicative skills (indeed, research shows that parents do use more emotion words when talking with daughters than sons; e.g., Kuebli & Fivush, 1992).”
BackgroundEmotion Socialization and Expressive Development in Preterm and Full-Term Infants
Malatesta, C. Z., Grigoryev, P. B., Lamb, C., Albin, M., & Culver, C. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1986.tb00031.x · Cited by 184 · see citing works
The ontogeny and significance of infants' facial expressions in the first 9 months of life.
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Emotion Socialization and Expressive Development in Preterm and Full-Term Infants
Malatesta, C. Z., Grigoryev, P. B., Lamb, C., Albin, M., & Culver, C. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130587 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
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Attachment and adolescents’ emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving task with a friend
Zimmermann, P., Maier, M., Winter, M., & Grossmann, K. E. (2001) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250143000157 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
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“In this theory, it is proposed that there are gender-related display rules in the United States and many European cultures for girls to be more emotionally expressive than boys (consistent with this, women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men; Kring & Gordon, 1998).”
BackgroundCostello, C. G. (1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Facial Expression and Affect Development
Oster, H. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8_3 · Cited by 160 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…1979 as a starting point because three major emotion coding systems—the Facial Action Coding System (FACS; Ekman & Friesen, 1978), the Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement Coding System (MAX; Izard, 1979), and Oster's coding system for infants (Oster, 1978)—were published around that time.”
BackgroundFabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Karbon, M., Troyer, D., & Switzer, G. E. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00842.x · Cited by 157 · see citing works
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“33 18 20 Infant w Parent Pos No Biringen et al. (1995) 0.”
BackgroundSnyder, J. J., Stoolmiller, M., Wilson, M., & Yamamoto, M. (2003) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00237 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Production of emotional facial expressions in European American, Japanese, and Chinese infants.
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Gender differences in masking negative emotions: Ability or motivation?
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“This gender difference may be explained by (a) girls' greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter ), consistent with female gender roles, and (b) girls' greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
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Differences in Shame and Pride as a Function of Children's Gender and Task Difficulty
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01651.x · Cited by 140 · see citing works
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“Consistent with this, Buck (1977) found that boys' emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4 to 6, whereas girls' expressions did not.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDepression in British and American children and its relation to anxiety and fear
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“They alert and prepare us to act to maintain conditions that support our goals for well-being and to change conditions that threaten our goals for well-being (Barrett & Campos, 1987). Therefore, it especially important to consider contextual influences, particularly the interpersonal context, when evaluating the natur…”
BackgroundCortisol Response to Embarrassment and Shame
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. S. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00455 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Garner, P. W., & Power, T. G. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01804.x · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Developing Theory-Based Substance Abuse Prevention Programs for Young Adolescent Girls
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Emotional Competence and Aggressive Behavior in School-Age Children
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“43 23 20 Tod/pre w Peer Neg No Bohnert et al. (2003) 0.”
Family relationships of depressed adolescents: A multimethod assessment
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The Development of Anticipatory Smiling.
Venezia, M., Messinger, D., Thorp, D., & Mundy, P. (2004) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0603_5 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
The Effect of Excessive Crying on the Development of Emotion Regulation
Stifter, C. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2002) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0302_2 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Maternal correlates of children's vicarious emotional responsiveness
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.4.639 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Preadolescent Clues to Understanding Depression in Girls
Keenan, K., & Hipwell, A. E. (2005) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-005-4750-3 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Positive emotionality at age 3 predicts cognitive styles in 7-year-old children
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., & Olino, T. M. (2006) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579406060226 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Emotional Facial Expressions in Infancy
Camras, L. A., & Shutter, J. M. (2010) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073909352529 · Cited by 117 · cited 1× · see citing works
“(2010) 0.94 9 9 Infant w Parent Pos No Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.”
InfluentialComparison of Sadness, Anger, and Fear Facial Expressions When Toddlers Look at Their Mothers
Buss, K. A., & Kiel, E. J. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00815.x · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Examining the Familial Link Between Positive Affect and Empathy Development in the Second Year
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The etiology of children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality
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Differences in pride and shame in maltreated and nonmaltreated preschoolers.
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Contextual determinants of anger and other negative expressions in young infants.
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Affective interactions of depressed and nondepressed mothers and their children
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Dynamic measures of RSA predict distress and regulation in toddlers
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The Development of Emotional Competence. The Guilford Series on Social and Emotional Development.
Saarni, C. I. (1999) · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Gender, sadness, and depression: The development of emotional focus through gendered discourse
Fıvush, R., & Buckner, J. P. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628191.012 · Cited by 95 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…happiness and internalizing emotion expressions in girls, through modeling of gender-specific patterns of emotional expression and/or through reacting to children's emotion expressions in ways that promote adherence to gender roles (Chaplin, Cole, & Zahn-Waxler, 2005a; Fivush & Buckner, 2000).”
BackgroundGenetic and attachment influences on adolescents’ regulation of autonomy and aggressiveness
Zimmermann, P., Mohr, C., & Spangler, G. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02158.x · Cited by 94 · see citing works
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Emotion Regulation in Context: Situational Effects on Infant and Caregiver Behavior
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Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Granger, D. A., Eggum, N. D., Sallquist, J., Haugen, R. G., Kupfer, A. S., & Hofer, C. (2009) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.020 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
18 of the 309 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5 · Cited by 1,757 · see citing works
Gender Similarities and Differences
Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057 · Cited by 1,262 · see citing works
Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior
Christov-Moore, L., Simpson, E. A., Coudé, G., Grigaityte, K., Iacoboni, M., & Ferrari, P. F. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001 · Cited by 1,137 · see citing works
“Empathy in adolescence Females are more prosocial, sympathetic, and empathetic than males, from childhood through adolescence (for reviews, see Chaplin and Aldao, 2013; Rose and Rudolph, 2006).”
BackgroundZimmermann, P., & Iwanski, A. (2014) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025413515405 · Cited by 916 · see citing works
“Some authors suggest that gender differences may result from differences in emotional reactivity and regulation based on brain processes (Domes et al., 2010) or expressiveness (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundEmotional intelligence predicts academic performance: a meta-analysis
MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E. R., Double, K. S., Bucich, M., & Minbashian, A. (2020) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000219 · Cited by 1,121 · see citing works
Aldao, A., Gee, D. G., De Los Reyes, A., & Seager, I. (2016) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579416000638 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
“We see great merit in this approach, as we ourselves have published a number of meta-analytic reviews (e.g., Aldao et al., 2010; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; De Los Reyes et al., 2015).”
MethodSelf-citationGender and Emotion Expression: A Developmental Contextual Perspective
Chaplin, T. M. (2014) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073914544408 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
“In the third, Chaplin and Aldao (2013), in their meta-analytic review of primarily (but not entirely) White U.S. children and adolescents aged 0–17, did not find significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions in infancy or the toddler/preschool period, but did find small but…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationEvaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis.
Zell, E., Križan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0038208 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy315 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Eliot, L., Ahmed, A., Khan, H., & Patel, J. Y. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.026 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
What meta-analyses reveal about the replicability of psychological research.
Stanley, T. D., Carter, E. C., & Doucouliagos, H. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000169 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Ravens‐Sieberer, U., Kaman, A., Erhart, M., Otto, C., Devine, J., Löffler, C., Hurrelmann, K., Bullinger, M., Barkmann, C., Siegel, N. A., et al. (2021) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-021-01889-1 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Ng, B., Chu, A., & Khan, M. M. (2013) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002468 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences
Archer, J. (2019) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12507 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Effects of Age and Gender in Emotion Regulation of Children and Adolescents
Sanchis-Sanchis, A., Sevilla, M. D. G., Moliner, A.-R., & Murillo, C. P. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00946 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study
Messinger, D. S., Young, G. S., Webb, S. J., Ozonoff, S., Bryson, S. E., Carter, A., Carver, L., Charman, T., Chawarska, K., Curtin, S., et al. (2015) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0027-y · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“, more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected [41].”
BackgroundConceptualizing Emotion Regulation and Coregulation as Family-Level Phenomena
Paley, B., & Hajal, N. J. (2022) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-022-00378-4 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“For example, one study found that girls display more positive emotions than boys, as well as more internalizing emotions; in contrast, boys initially showed more externalizing emotions than girls, although by adolescence girls were displaying more externalizing emotions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
ResultGross, J. T., & Cassidy, J. A. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000722 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Canetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
The Well-being of children in lock-down: Physical, emotional, social and academic impact
Berasategi, N., Mondragón, N. I., Santamaría, M. D., & Munitis, A. E. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106085 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Letourneau, N. L., Dewey, D., Kaplan, B. J., Ntanda, H. N., Novick, J., Thomas, J. C., Deane, A., Leung, B. M. Y., Pon, K. J., Giesbrecht, G. F., et al. (2018) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174418000648 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Chervonsky, E., & Hunt, C. J. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000432 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Prior studies have found that males use suppression more frequently and express their emotions less often than females (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Gross & John, 2003; Gullone & Taffe, 2012; Haga et al., 2009; Melka, Lancaster, Bryant, & Rodriguez, 2011; Perry-Parrish & Zeman, 2011).”
BackgroundThe Gendered Family Process Model: An Integrative Framework of Gender in the Family
Endendijk, J. J., Groeneveld, M. G., & Mesman, J. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1185-8 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“Also, boys are more likely to express externalizing emotions and behaviors (e.g., aggression), whereas girls are more likely to show internalizing emotions and behaviors (e.g., depression) (for meta-analyses and reviews, see Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abrahamson, 2008).”
BackgroundThomas, J. C., APrON Study Team, Letourneau, N. L., Campbell, T. S., Tomfohr‐Madsen, L. M., & Giesbrecht, G. F. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000279 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Davies, H. A., Wolz, I., Leppänen, J., Fernández‐Aranda, F., Schmidt, U. H., & Tchanturia, K. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.02.015 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“, 2012), age (Chapell, 1997), gender (Chaplin and Aldao, 2013; Hess et al., 2000), and psychopathology (e.”
Social competence and psychopathology in early childhood: a systematic review
Huber, L., Plötner, M., & Schmitz, J. (2018) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1152-x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Williams, E., Gleeson, K., & Jones, B. (2017) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361317723836 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“…significant gender differences in peer relationship processes (Rose and Rudolph, 2006), identity formation and emotional development (Archer, 1989, Chaplin and Aldao, 2013) suggests that the experiences and meaning-making of female pupils with ASD may differ from that of their male counterparts…”
BackgroundMothers' and Fathers' Emotion Socialization and Children's Emotion Regulation: A Within‐Family Model
Shewark, E. A., & Blandon, A. Y. (2014) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12095 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
The neuroscience of sadness: A multidisciplinary synthesis and collaborative review
Arias-López, J. A., Williams, C., Raghvani, R., Aghajani, M., Báez, S., Belzung, C., Booij, L., Busatto, G. F., Chiarella, J., Fu, C. H. Y., et al. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.006 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Indeed, the prevalence of internalizing symptoms has been found to be higher in girls compared to boys from a young age (Bask, 2015; Chaplin and Aldao, 2013), although other research suggests that levels of internalizing symptoms in females, including symptoms of depression, do not begin to exceed symptom levels in ma…”
Parent–adolescent conflict interactions and adolescent alcohol use
Chaplin, T. M., Sinha, R., Simmons, J. A., Healy, S. M., Mayes, L. C., Hommer, R. E., & Crowley, M. J. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.004 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Given the important gender differences in emotional and physiological stress responses found in the literature (e.g., Chaplin & Aldao, 2011), future studies with larger samples should examine gender effects.”
BackgroundSelf-citationOldershaw, A., Startup, H. M., & Lavender, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00219 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Piccininni, C. R., Michaelson, V. E., Janssen, I., & Pickett, W. (2018) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.04.020 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Garner, P. W., Mahatmya, D., Brown, E. L., & Vesely, C. K. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9253-7 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
A large-scale analysis of sex differences in facial expressions
McDuff, D., Kodra, E., el Kaliouby, R., & LaFrance, M. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173942 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
The neurobiology of interoception and affect
Feldman, M. J., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Lindquist, K. A. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.01.009 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“For example, in the USA and some Western countries, women and girls reliably express emotions and physical symptoms more often than men and boys [154,155].”
Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotion is Related to their Frequency in Everyday Life
Calvo, M. G., Gutiérrez-García, A., Fernández-Martín, A., & Nummenmaa, L. (2014) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-014-0191-3 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Planalp, E. M., Hulle, C. V., Gagne, J. R., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00846 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“According to social learning theory, girls learn to be more wary of environmental novelty and discomfort than boys (Kochanska, 1993; Chaplin and Aldao, 2013); thus, initial socialization processes for both parents and infants might account for our findings for gender differences in the development of fear (Malatesta a…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDalgaard, N. T., Bondebjerg, A., Viinholt, B. C. A., & Filges, T. (2022) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1291 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“From a very early age, gender is associated with differences in child behaviour and cognition (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Ostrov & Keating, 2004; Silverman, 2003).”
BackgroundBodily maps of emotions are culturally universal
Volynets, S., Glerean, E., Hietanen, J. K., Hari, R., & Nummenmaa, L. (2020) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000624 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Radesky, J. S., Kaciroti, N., Weeks, H. M., Schaller, A., & Miller, A. L. (2023) · JAMA Pediatrics · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.4793 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Crea, T. M., López, A., Taylor, T., & Underwood, D. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.12.009 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Finnegan, W. (2022) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2022.2120963 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“…students that identified as female had higher ratings of both climate hope and climate distress compared to students that identified as male, although researchers have identified similar gender differences in young people’s emotional expression beyond environmental issues (Chaplin and Aldao 2013).”
Gender and Social‐Cognitive Development
Leaper, C. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy219 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Badour, C. L., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515589930 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“It is possible that this pattern may reflect the well-replicated finding that women are more likely than men to experience negative affect generally (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Lynn & Martin, 1997; Stevens & Hamann, 2012), it also appears that the higher prevalence of assault-related negative affect…”
ResultReyes, A. D. L., & Aldao, A. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.891227 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationFerrier, D. E., Bassett, H. H., & Denham, S. A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00487 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Implications from these findings contribute to the growing literature stressing the importance of emotions in preschoolers’ optimal development (e.g., Denham, 2006; see also Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundAlivernini, F., Cavicchiolo, E., Manganelli, S., Chirico, A., & Lucidi, F. (2019) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243453.2019.1642214 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…show more emotional problems, such as anxiety and depression, and that they self-report more interpersonal stressors than their male peers (e.g., Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Flook, 2011; Hankin et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Silk, Steinberg, & Morris, 2003; Wade, Cairney, & Pevalin, 2002).”
Hastings, P. D., Klimes-Dougan, B., Kendziora, K. T., Brand, A., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2014) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579414001084 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The development of sympathy from 5 to 7 years: increase, decline or stability? A longitudinal study
Kienbaum, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00468 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Gender and age differences in parent–child emotion talk
Aznar, A., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2014) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12069 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Alivernini, F., Cavicchiolo, E., Girelli, L., Lucidi, F., Biasi, V., Leone, L., Cozzolino, M., & Manganelli, S. (2019) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.08.011 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Gonçalves, S. F., Chaplin, T. M., Turpyn, C. C., Niehaus, C. E., Curby, T. W., Sinha, R., & Ansell, E. B. (2019) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00867-8 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationDeng, X., Chen, S., Li, X., Tan, C., Li, W., Zhong, C., Mei, R., & Ye, M. (2022) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105649 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Trajectories of Autism Symptom Severity Change During Early Childhood
Waizbard‐Bartov, E., Ferrer, E. E., Young, G. S., Heath, B. E., Rogers, S. J., Nordahl, C. W., Solomon, M., & Amaral, D. G. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04526-z · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Screen time and the development of emotion understanding from age 4 to age 8: A community study
Skalická, V., Hygen, B. W., Stenseng, F., Kårstad, S. B., & Wichstrøm, L. (2019) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12283 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Valverde, P. R., Moreno-Maldonado, C., Moreno, C., & Rivera, F. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01952 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Does an imbalance in the population gender ratio affect FinTech innovation?
Chen, X., Chen, W., & Lu, K. (2022) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2022.122164 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Prevalence and correlates of anger in the community: results from a national survey
Okuda, M., Picazo, J. M. V., Olfson, M., Hasin, D. S., Liu, S.-M., Bernardi, S., & Blanco, C. (2014) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852914000182 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“At the same time, however, a greater tendency to express externalizing emotions instead of other emotions such as fear might contribute to males’ greater risk for conduct problems.(35) Our study also found ethnic differences in the prevalence of anger.”
BackgroundBai, S., Repetti, R. L., & Sperling, J. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039854 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Meta-analyses of observational and questionnaire studies indicate that girls display more positive emotion than boys do, but boys may exhibit high-intensity positive emotions more often than girls do (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest, Hyde, Hill, & Van Hulle, 2006).”
Prenatal and early childhood exposure to phthalates and childhood behavior at age 7 years
Daniel, S., Balalian, A. A., Insel, B. J., Liu, X., Whyatt, R. M., Calafat, A. M., Rauh, V., Perera, F. P., Hoepner, L., Herbstman, J. B., et al. (2020) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105894 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Durbeej, N., Sörman, K., Norén Selinus, E., Lundström, S., Lichtenstein, P., Hellner, C., & Halldner, L. (2019) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-019-0326-8 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Stewart, S. L., & Hamza, C. A. (2017) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-016-1970-9 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Farr, R. H., Grant‐Marsney, H. A., & Grotevant, H. D. (2014) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12069 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Talking Together, Thinking Alone: Relations among Co-Rumination, Peer Relationships, and Rumination
Felton, J., Cole, D., Havewala, M., Kurdziel, G., & Brown, V. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-018-0937-z · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Antipovienė, A., Narbutaité, J., & Virtanen, J. I. (2021) · European Journal of Dentistry · doi:10.1055/s-0041-1723066 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“17,18,20,21 In addition, 9-to 18-year-old boys were significantly more likely than girls to experience TDI, a tendency attributable to behavioral factors and expressions of emotion related to the different sexes, 22 such as boys participate in contact sports more often than girls.”
Reducing child aggression through sports intervention: The role of self-control skills and emotions
Shachar, K., Ronen-Rosenbaum, T., Rosenbaum, M., Orkibi, H., & Hamama, L. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.012 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The codevelopment of effortful control and school behavioral problems.
Atherton, O. E., Zheng, L. R., Bleidorn, W., & Robins, R. W. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000201 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…boys showed significantly higher levels of school behavioral problems than girls at most ages, replicating previous research on antisocial behavior and conduct problems (Berkout, Young, & Gross, 2011; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Costenbader & Markson, 1998; Veenstra, Lindenberg, Tinga, & Ormel, 2010).”
ResultSalavera, C., Supervía, P. U., & Teruel, P. (2019) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-018-0115-y · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“…instance, males are two to four times more likely to present conduct problems (Campos, Besser, Morgado, & Blatt, 2014; Navarro-Pardo, Meléndez, Sales, & Sancerni, 2012), while females present more emotional problems (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Schäfer, Naumann, Holmes, Tuschen-Caffier & Samson, 2017).”
BackgroundOrkibi, H., Hamama, L., Gavriel-Fried, B., & Ronen, T. (2018) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x15581171 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Finally, as expected, and consistent with past studies (e.g., Hyde, 2014), girls reported higher levels of self-control skills, perceived parents’ and classmates’ support, and negative emotions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), compared with boys.”
BackgroundResultQuality of life and its influence on clinical competence among nurses: a self‐reported study
Cruz, J. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.13402 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Linking Moral Identity With Moral Emotions: A Meta-Analysis
Lefebvre, J. P., & Krettenauer, T. (2019) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/1089268019880887 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Two meta-analyses reported significant gender differences in the experience and expression of empathy (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983), particularly with self-report measures of empathy.”
BackgroundFransson, E., Sörensen, F., Kallak, T. K., Ramklint, M., Eckerdal, P., Heimgärtner, M., Krägeloh‐Mann, I., & Skalkidou, A. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.04.003 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Mann, F. D., Atherton, O. E., DeYoung, C. G., Krueger, R. F., & Robins, R. W. (2020) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000633 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…sex differences may come as a surprise, a recent meta-analysis of sex differences in emotion expression found that boys expressed more externalizing emotions than girls in early and middle childhood, but girls expressed more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Stress reactivity and the developmental psychopathology of adolescent substance use
Chaplin, T. M., Niehaus, C. E., & Gonçalves, S. F. (2018) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.09.002 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationBennett, S., Robb, K. A., Zortea, T. C., Dickson, A., Richardson, C., & O’Connor, R. C. (2023) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000397 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Are There Gender Differences in Emotion Comprehension? Analysis of the Test of Emotion Comprehension
Fidalgo, Á. M., Tenenbaum, H. R., & Aznar, A. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0956-5 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“If in the scope of expression of emotions there seem to be small but significant differences in gender (Chaplin and Aldao 2013) Chaplin 2015), in the field of emotion comprehension the evidence is not so clear.”
BackgroundLee, J. O., Cho, J., Yoon, Y., Bello, M. S., Khoddam, R., & Leventhal, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0790-5 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Gender socialization (Chodorow 1978) posits that women might be less likely to be involved in substance use in general, because externalizing behaviors such as substance use might not fit gendered behavioral norms (Broidy and Agnew 1997; Chaplin and Aldao 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema 2004).”
How Teachers Deal with Cases of Bullying at School: What Victims Say
Rigby, K. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072338 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“This is consistent with the stereotype that boys may be more prone to deny or minimize negative feelings, thereby promoting a macho image of themselves [31].”
BackgroundMarceau, K., Zahn‐Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., Schreiber, J. E., Hastings, P. D., & Klimes‐Dougan, B. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415000668 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“However, these patterns are often not seen in their interactions with parents (see meta-analytic review by Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundResultLangevin, R., Hébert, M., & Cossette, L. (2015) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.001 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Key considerations in assessing young children’s emotional competence
Denham, S. A., Ferrier, D. E., Howarth, G. Z., Herndon, K. J., & Bassett, H. H. (2016) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2016.1146659 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Additionally, boys and girls develop and manifest emotionally competent behaviours differently and at different times, with boys often expressing more negative emotion during play or providing more dysregulated responses (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Denham et al., 2012b).”
BackgroundDysregulated Fear, Social Inhibition, and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia: A Replication and Extension
Buss, K. A., Davis, E. L., Ram, N., & Coccia, M. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12774 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Generally, (in)sensitivity of emotional responses across contexts is viewed as an important predictor of psychopathology (Bonanno et al., 2007; Chaplin & Aldao, 2012; Coifman & Bonanno, 2010; Shackman et al., 2016).”
Violência sexual na adolescência, perfil da vítima e impactos sobre a saúde mental
Fontes, L. F., Conceição, O. C., & Machado, S. (2017) · Ciência & Saúde Coletiva · doi:10.1590/1413-81232017229.11042017 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Bunford, N., Dawson, A. E., Evans, S. W., Ray, A., Langberg, J. M., Owens, J. S., DuPaul, G. J., & Allan, D. M. (2018) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191118792307 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“…of a large enough sample of boys and girls wherein parents may attend to emotions in their children differently in a manner consistent with gender stereotypes (Chaplin, Cole, & Zahn-Waxler, 2005) and/or genuine differences in emotion expression across genders in adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundGender disparity in pediatrics: a review of the current literature
Piccini, P., Montagnani, C., & de Martino, M. (2018) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0437-x · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“A recent review of the literature found that females express more frequently internalizing emotions (sadness, anxiety), while males show more externalizing emotions like anger [23].”
BackgroundEmotional Expressivity in Toddlers With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Macari, S. L., DiNicola, L. M., Kane‐Grade, F., Prince, E. B., Vernetti, A., Powell, K. K., Fontenelle, S., & Chawarska, K. (2018) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.872 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Sex Differences in the Impact of Racial Discrimination on Mental Health Among Black Americans
Brownlow, B. N., Sosoo, E. E., Long, R. N., Hoggard, L. S., Burford, T. I., & Hill, L. K. (2019) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1098-9 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox
Herlitz, A., Hönig, I., Hedebrant, K., & Asperholm, M. (2025) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231202685 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“On the other hand, if anything, an opposite pattern seems to be present for self-reported anger and brow furrowing, that is, there are larger sex differences in countries with higher living conditions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
InfluentialIde, J. S., Li, H.-T., Chen, Y., Le, T. M., Li, C. S.-P., Zhornitsky, S., & Li, C. R. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117085 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“More studies clearly are warranted to understand the developmental neural processes of sex-specific cognitive and emotional characteristics (Cohn, 1991; Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundKim, H., Ma, J., Sunkyoung, L., & Ying, G. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-01803-4 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Engagement Mediates the Relationship Between Emotion and Achievement of Chinese EFL Learners
Feng, E., & Hong, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895594 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“The result partially confirms previous findings that women tend to show more internalizing emotions and positive emotions (Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
ResultIncreases in Anxiety and Depression During COVID-19: A Large Longitudinal Study From China
Wu, S., Zhang, K., Parks‐Stamm, E. J., Hu, Z., Ji, Y., & Cui, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.706601 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“From an emotional coping perspective, a large number of previous studies have shown that men exhibit less expressive emotional behaviors than women (Barrett et al., 1998; Hess et al., 2000; Parkins, 2012; Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
ResultWenzler, S., Levine, S., van Dick, R., et al. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000185 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Moilanen, K. L., Padilla‐Walker, L. M., & Blaacker, D. R. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-018-0825-6 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Fenollar-Cortés, J., Jiménez, Ó., Ruiz-García, A., & Resurrección, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.682860 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Turpyn, C. C., Chaplin, T. M., Cook, E. C., & Martelli, A. M. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.02.009 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationSupport for Autonomy at School Predicts Immigrant Adolescents’ Psychological Well-being
Alivernini, F., Cavicchiolo, E., Manganelli, S., Chirico, A., & Lucidi, F. (2018) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-018-0839-x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The unfolding dark side: Age trends in dark personality features
Klimstra, T. A., Jeronimus, B. F., Sijtsema, J. J., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103915 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Emotion regulation and mental health across cultures: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chen, S., Cai, Q., Omari, D. I., Sanghvi, D. E., Lyu, S., & Bonanno, G. A. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02168-8 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Gender norms and expectations also play a crucial role, as societal expectations of emotional expressions differ on the basis of gender 69 .”
Gender Estimation Based on Smile-Dynamics
Dantcheva, A., & Brémond, F. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security · doi:10.1109/tifs.2016.2632070 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“It is interesting to note, that a gender-based difference in emotional expression is observed as early as in 3 months old, shaped by how caregivers interact to male and female infants [32]; and also observed in toddlers, which appears to be further trained in social interactions [15], [54], [55].”
Background
- Authors
- Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chaplin, Tara M.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 735-765
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC3597769
- OpenAlex
- W2156233592
- Cited by
- 1,247
- References
- 309
- Citations by year
- 2026: 153 · 2025: 161 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 123 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 24.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (K01DA024759)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, emotional expression, children, facial expressions, vocal expression, behavioral expression, positive emotions, age differences, interpersonal context, parent-child interaction, peer interaction, adolescence, middle childhood, toddlerhood
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Analysis of Variance, Child, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Infant, Male, Models, Theoretical, Regression Analysis, Sex Characteristics, Socialization, Adolescent Development
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