The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 210 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A life-span theory of control.
Abstract
A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.
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“Literature suggests that the internal locus of control may increase until middle age, decreasing thereafter [20, 21].”
From Health anxiety, coping mechanisms and COVID 19: An Indian community sample at week 1 of lockdown (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
Citations
Cites
Items 201–210 of 210
O'Gorman, H. J. (1980) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/016402758021007 · Cited by 27
On the Dynamics Between Growth and Decline in the Aging of Intelligence and Memory
Baltes, P. B., & Kliegl, R. M. (1986) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70007-1_1 · Cited by 25
Determinants of Interpersonal Support and Self-Direction in Group Residential Facilities
Timko, C., & Moos, R. H. (1990) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/45.5.s184 · Cited by 25
Wisdom: One facet of successful aging?
Baltes, P. B., Smith, J., Staudinger, U. M., & Sowarka, D. (1990) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 23
Acquisition of appetitional and palpebral conditioned reflexes by the same infants
Janos, O., & Papoušek, H. (1977) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/0378-3782(77)90032-9 · Cited by 18
Heckhausen, J. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(87)90060-9 · Cited by 18
Self-citationPersonal Control and Other Determinants of Psychological Well-Being in Nursing Home Elders
Bowsher, J. E., & Gerlach, M. J. (1990) · Research and theory for nursing practice · doi:10.1891/0889-7182.4.2.91 · Cited by 18
Heckhausen, H. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003758167-8 · Cited by 17
Sekundäre Kontrolle bei Jugendlichen
Flammer, A., Züblin, C., & Grob, A. (1988) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · Cited by 8
The Child as Apprentice: A New Metaphor for Cognitive Development
Hudson, J. A. (1991) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/029817 · Cited by 1
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Social and Psychological Resources and Adaptation
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307 · Cited by 4,594
“Another key resource is people’s characteristic degree of goal pursuit, which has been examined on both ends of the continuum between tenacious goal pursuit (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990) and relinquishment of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundSkinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216 · Cited by 2,639
“…tend to trigger a problemsolving response (instrumental action, strategizing, etc.), whereas an appreciation of the impossibility of changing a stressful situation is likely to trigger cognitive restructuring or other forms of accommodation (or secondary control coping; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundSocioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life
Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1024569803230 · Cited by 1,978
“Flexible goal adjustment measured by items like “I usually find something positive even after giving up something I cherish” increases from young to old age (Brandtst¨ adter & Renner, 1990; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995 ).”
BackgroundRauch, A., & Fresé, M. (2007) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320701595438 · Cited by 1,879
“…1997); they also show a higher degree of personal initiative (Speier & Frese, 1997); they have higher hopes for success and, therefore, take a long-term perspective (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995); they also actively search for information (Ashford & Tsui, 1991), which leads to a better knowledge.”
BackgroundA guide to constructs of control.
Skinner, E. A. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.549 · Cited by 1,918
Metadata
- Authors
- Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- ORCID
- Heckhausen, Jutta
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 284-304
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2130212806
- Semantic Scholar
- 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
- Cited by
- 1,844
- References
- 210
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
- FWCI
- 55.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
- National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
- National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Keywords
- lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values
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