Cited by 1,844Aging and Gerontology ResearchBehavioral Health and InterventionsOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

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A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta, Schulz, Richard·1995·Psychological Review

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Abstract

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

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See all 1,844

Authors: Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
Affiliations: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
ORCID: Heckhausen, Jutta
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995
Volume: 102
Issue: 2
Pages: 284-304
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284
OpenAlex: W2130212806
Semantic Scholar: 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
Cited by: 1,844
References: 210
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
FWCI: 55.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values

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A life-span theory of control.

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