The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 212 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Suicide as escape from self.
Abstract
Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.
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In the citing paper
“Some of the behavioral manifestations found in previous research are avoidance (Moskalenko and Heine 2003), self-harm (Baumeister 1990; Morin and Craig 2000), increased emotional intensity (Silvia 2002), and -particularly pertinent to our research -self-regulation (Bandura 1978; Carver and Scheier 2004; Kanfer 1977).”
From Paradoxical effects of self-awareness of being observed: testing the effect of police body-worn cameras on assaults and aggression against officers (2018) · cites this paper as Baumeister 1990
In the citing paper
“Some of the predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Accepting reality and reducing avoidance are fundamental aims of ACT, and this therapeutic work is aligned with the theories of suicide that focus on an individual’s sense of entrapment and/or desire to escape their current reality [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
Citations
Cites
Items 201–210 of 210
The Confrontation with Death and the Renewal of Life
Taylor, S. (1978) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1978.tb00553.x · Cited by 6
Suicide Attempt and Social Isolation on the MAPS Test*
Neuringer, C. (1972) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1972.tb00077.x · Cited by 6
Is unemployment a cause of parasuicide?
Platt, S. D., & Kreitman, N. (1985) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.290.6462.161-a · Cited by 6
Characteristics of Suicide in 54 Nonliterate Societies
Palmer, S. (1971) · Cited by 5
Suicide by Industry and Occupation: A Structural‐Change Approach
Reinhart, G. R., & Linden, L. L. (1982) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1982.tb01091.x · Cited by 4
Comparative Psychopathology of Suicide Attempts and Assaults
Connor, H. E., Daggett, L. R., Maris, R. W., & Weiss, S. M. (1973) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1973.tb00115.x · Cited by 4
A Concept of Anomie and Suicide of Japanese College Students
Iga, M. (1971) · Cited by 4
Time perspective in suicidal and nonsuicidal individuals.
Brockopp, G. W., & Lester, D. (1970) · Cited by 4
Suicide Attempters, Ideators and Risk-Taking Propensity
Silberfeld, M., Streiner, B. J., & Ciampi, A. (1985) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674378503000412 · Cited by 3
Bermingham, D. F. (1987) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/s0007125000106166 · Cited by 1
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 212 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
“Indeed, the main criticism that can be leveled against Durkheim's hypothesis is that it is incomplete in the sense that it does not explain everything about suicide (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Douglas, 1967), but it is correct as far as it goes.”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe interpersonal theory of suicide.
Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018697 · Cited by 5,292
“However, the interpersonal theory diverges from previous theories in its proposal that an unmet “need to belong” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p. 1) is the specific interpersonal need involved in desire for suicide. The theory also differs in that we propose that thwarted belongingness is a multidimensional construct. Fi…”
BackgroundInfluentialRisk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A meta-analysis of 50 years of research
Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Fox, K. R., Bentley, K. H., Kleiman, E. M., Huang, X., Musacchio, K. M., Jaroszewski, A. C., Chang, B. P., & Nock, M. K. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000084 · Cited by 3,784
“1136/jech-2011200464 Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97, 90–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.90 Baumert, J., Schneider, B., Lukaschek, K., Emeny, R. T., Meisinger, C., Erazo, N., . . . Ladwig, K. H. (2014). Adverse conditions at the workplace are associated wit…”
BackgroundInfluentialNock, M. K., Borges, G., Bromet, E. J., Cha, C. B., Kessler, R. C., & Lee, S. (2008) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxn002 · Cited by 2,897
“Several such risk factors include the presence of hopelessness (83–85), anhedonia (49,86), impulsiveness (70,87–89), and high emotional reactivity (86,87,90), each of which may increase psychological distress to a point that is unbearable and lead a person to seek escape via suicide (88,91–93).”
BackgroundHayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.64.6.1152 · Cited by 3,595
“When the motivational conditions involved in suicide are analyzed, more than half of actual or attempted suicides involve an attempt to flee from aversive events (Loo, 1986; Smith & Bloom, 1985), especially states of mind such as guilt and anxiety (Bancroft, Skrimshire & Simkins, 1976; Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- ORCID
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1990
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 90-113
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2098559214
- Cited by
- 1,919
- References
- 212
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 67
- FWCI
- 13.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Disorders
- Keywords
- suicide, self-awareness, negative affect, internal attribution, self-justification, disinhibition, irrationality, meaning, temporal focus, concrete thinking, cognitive rigidity
- MeSH terms
- Depressive Disorder, Escape Reaction, Humans, Self Concept, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted
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