Cited by 2,494Memory and Neural MechanismsAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesStress Responses and Cortisol

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 131 of the 131 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence

Maier, Steven F., Seligman, Martin E.·1976·Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

DOI 10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

\, SUMMARY In 1967, Overmier and Seligman found that dogs exposed to inescapable and unavoidable electric shocks in one situation later failed to learn to escape shock in a different situation where escape was possible. Shortly thereafter Seligman and Maier (1967) demonstrated that this effect was caused by the uncontrollability of the original shocks. In this article we review the effects of exposing organisms to aversive events which they cannot control, and we review the explanations which have been offered. There seem to be motivational, cognitive, and emotional effects of uncontrollability. (a) Motivation. Dogs that have been exposed to inescapable shocks do not subsequently initiate escape response in the presence of shock. We review parallel phenomena in cats, fish, rats, and man. Of particular interest is the discussion of learned helplessness in rats and man. Rats are of interest because learned helplessness has been difficult to demonstrate in rats. However, we show that inescapably shocked rats do fail to learn to escape if the escape task is reasonably difficult. With regard to man, we review a variety of studies using inescapable noise and unsolvable problems as agents which produce learned helplessness effects on both instrumental and cognitive tasks, (b) Cognition. We argue that exposure to uncontrollabl e events interferes with the organism's tendency to perceive contingent relationships between its behavior and outcomes. Here we review a variety of studies showing such a cognitive set. (c) Emotion. We review a variety of experiments which show that uncontrollable aversive events produce greater emotional disruption than do controllable aversive events. We have proposed an explanation for these effects, which we call the learned helplessness hypothesis. It argues that when events are uncontrollable the organism learns that its behavior and outcomes are independent, and that this learning produces the motivational, cognitive, and emotional effects of uncontrollabi lity. We describe the learned helplessness hypothesis and research which supports it. Finally, we describe and discuss in detail alternative hypotheses which have been offered as accounts of the learned helplessness effect. One set of hypotheses argues that organisms learn motor responses during exposure to uncontrollabl e shock that compete with the response required in the test task. Another explanation holds that uncontrollable shock is a severe stressor and depletes a neurochemical necessary for the mediation of movement. We examine the logical structure of these explanations and present a variety of evidence which bears on them directly.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3

Cites

131 of 131 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Rotter, J. B. (1966) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0092976 · Cited by 21,937
Psychological stress and the coping process
Lazarus, R. S. (1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,164
Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6,181
Self-citation
Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness
Kahneman, D. J., & Tversky, A. (1972) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3 · Cited by 4,996
Schedules of reinforcement.
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957) · doi:10.1037/10627-000 · Cited by 4,894
The illusion of control.
Langer, E. J. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311 · Cited by 3,909
Untitled work
(1967) · Cited by 3,831
Punishment and aversive behavior
Campbell, B. A., & Church, R. M. (1969) · Appleton-Century-Crofts eBooks · Cited by 1,989
Failure to escape traumatic shock.
Seligman, M. E., & Maier, S. F. (1967) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024514 · Cited by 1,981
Self-citation
Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning
Bolles, R. C. (1970) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0028589 · Cited by 1,610

Show all 131 references

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 1,008

A brief review on the mental health for select elements of the built environment
Beemer, C. J., Stearns‐Yoder, K. A., Schuldt, S., Kinney, K. A., Lowry, C. A., Postolache, T. T., Brenner, L. A., & Hoisington, A. J. (2019) · Indoor and Built Environment · doi:10.1177/1420326x19889653 · Cited by 116
The drug treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder
van der Kolk, B. A. (1987) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/0165-0327(87)90024-3 · Cited by 99
Exposure to inescapable stress persistently facilitates associative and nonassociative learning in rats.
Servatius, R. J., & Shors, T. J. (1994) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.108.6.1101 · Cited by 98
Effects of an extract of Ginkgo Biloba (EGB 761) on “learned helplessness” and other models of stress in rodents
Porsalt, R. D., Martin, P., Lenègre, A., Fromage, S., & Drieu, K. (1990) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(90)90107-s · Cited by 97
Digital empowerment in a WEEE collection business ecosystem: A comparative study of two typical cases in China
Sun, Q. Y., Wang, C., Zuo, L., & Lu, F. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.114 · Cited by 96
The Contribution of Stressor Intensity, Duration, and Context to the Stress-Induced Facilitation of Associative Learning
Shors, T. J., & Servatius, R. J. (1997) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1006/nlme.1997.3763 · Cited by 95
Epilepsy and Learned Helplessness
Devillis, R. F., DeVellis, B. M., Wallston, B. S., & Wallston, K. A. (1980) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp0103_4 · Cited by 96
Animal Behavioural Studies in the Evaluation of Antidepressant Drugs
Thiébot, M.-H., Martin, P., & Puech, A. J. (1992) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/s0007125000296670 · Cited by 99
Pharmacology of the β‐Carboline FG‐7142, a Partial Inverse Agonist at the Benzodiazepine Allosteric Site of the GABAA Receptor: Neurochemical, Neurophysiological, and Behavioral Effects
Evans, A. K., & Lowry, C. A. (2007) · CNS Drug Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1527-3458.2007.00025.x · Cited by 97
Inescapable shock reduces [3H]Ro 5-4864 binding to “peripheral-type” benzodiazepine receptors in the rat
Drugan, R. C., Basile, A. S., Crawley, J. N., Paul, S. M., & Skolnick, P. (1986) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(86)90504-6 · Cited by 95
The sense of coherence scale in patients with rheumatoid arthritis
Callahan, L. F., & Pincus, T. (1995) · Arthritis & Rheumatism · doi:10.1002/art.1790080108 · Cited by 95
Inescapable shock interferes with the acquisition of an appetitive operant
Rosellini, R. A. (1978) · Animal Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03209594 · Cited by 95
Exposure to forced swim stress does not alter central production of IL-1
Deak, T., Bellamy, C., & D’Agostino, L. G. (2003) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(03)02485-5 · Cited by 94
Self-induced dependence.
Langer, E. J., & Benevento, A. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.886 · Cited by 94
Solvent Abuse: A Review
Barnes, G. E. (1979) · International Journal of the Addictions · doi:10.3109/10826087909054571 · Cited by 94
Goal-directed control and its antipodes
Dayan, P. (2009) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2009.03.004 · Cited by 93
Stress and Release: Case Studies of Teacher Resilience Following a Mindfulness-Based Intervention
Schussler, D. L., DeWeese, A., Rasheed, D. S., DeMauro, A. A., Brown, J. L., Greenberg, M. T., & Jennings, P. A. (2018) · American Journal of Education · doi:10.1086/699808 · Cited by 112
Human Aggression and Suicide
Brown, G. L., & Goodwin, F. K. (1986) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1986.tb00353.x · Cited by 94
Symposium review: Scientific assessment of affective states in dairy cattle
Ede, T., Lecorps, B., von Keyserlingk, M. A. G., & Weary, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2019-16325 · Cited by 102
Contextual conditioning and the US preexposure effect in conditioned fear.
Baker, A. G., Mercier, P., Gabel, J., & Baker, P. A. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037//0097-7403.7.2.109 · Cited by 89
Escape deficits induced by uncontrollable stress: Antagonism by dopamine and norepinephrine agonists
Anisman, H., Suissa, A., & Sklar, L. S. (1980) · Behavioral and Neural Biology · doi:10.1016/s0163-1047(80)93132-5 · Cited by 92
Piagetian Theory and Neo-Piagetian Analysis as Psychological Guides in Education
Pascual‐Leone, J., Goodman, D., Ammon, P. R., & Subelman, I. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-3402-6_8 · Cited by 93
Effects of chronic job insecurity on Big Five personality change.
Wu, C., Wang, Y., Parker, S. K., & Griffin, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000488 · Cited by 94
Long-Term Regulation of Locus Ceruleus Sensitivity to Corticotropin-Releasing Factor by Swim Stress
Curtis, A. L., Pavcovich, L. A., & Valentino, R. J. (1999) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/s0022-3565(24)38261-8 · Cited by 91
Prediction and control: operational definitions for the experimental analysis of anxiety.
Zvolensky, M. J., Lejuez, C., & Eifert, G. (2000) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00090-x · Cited by 69
Dysrhythmia, dysphoria, and depression: The interaction of learned helplessness and circadian dysrhythmia in the pathogenesis of depression.
Healy, D., & Williams, J. M. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.163 · Cited by 90
Pierre Janet on post-traumatic stress
van der Kolk, B. A., Brown, P., & van der Hart, O. (1989) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf00974596 · Cited by 127
Minocycline produced antidepressant-like effects on the learned helplessness rats with alterations in levels of monoamine in the amygdala and no changes in BDNF levels in the hippocampus at baseline
Arakawa, S., Shirayama, Y., Fujita, Y., Ishima, T., Horio, M., Muneoka, K. T., Iyo, M., & Hashimoto, K. (2011) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.09.008 · Cited by 90
Strain-specific effects of inescapable shock on intracranial self-stimulation from the nucleus accumbens
Zacharko, R. M., LaLonde, G., Kasian, M., & Anisman, H. (1987) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(87)90436-7 · Cited by 89
Sex differences in the blood–brain barrier: Implications for mental health
Dion‐Albert, L., Binder, L. B., Daigle, B., Hong-Minh, A., Lebel, M., & Ménard, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.100989 · Cited by 93
Associations Between Family Structure Change and Child Behavior Problems: The Moderating Effect of Family Income
Ryan, R. M., Claessens, A., & Markowitz, A. J. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12283 · Cited by 88
‘What works’ for juvenile prisoners: the role of group climate in a youth prison
van der Helm, P., Klapwijk, M., Stams, G., & van der Laan, P. H. (2009) · Journal of Children s Services · doi:10.1108/17466660200900011 · Cited by 106
Attribution in sport psychology: seeking congruence between theory, research and practice
Rees, T., Ingledew, D. K., & Hardy, L. (2003) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2003.10.008 · Cited by 94
Medial prefrontal cortical activation modulates the impact of controllable and uncontrollable stressor exposure on a social exploration test of anxiety in the rat
Christianson, J. P., Thompson, B. M., Watkins, L. R., & Maier, S. F. (2008) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890802510302 · Cited by 91
Self-citation
Noradrenergic and dopaminergic interactions in escape behavior: Analysis of uncontrollable stress effects
Anisman, H., Ritch, M. A., & Sklar, L. S. (1981) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00427107 · Cited by 87
Access and use of agricultural market information by smallholder farmers: Measuring informational capabilities
Magesa, M. M., Kisangiri, M. F., & Ko, J. (2020) · The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries · doi:10.1002/isd2.12134 · Cited by 100
Effect of rearing environment and change of environment on the behaviour of gilts
Beattie, V. E., Walker, N., & Sneddon, I. (1995) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/0168-1591(96)81084-7 · Cited by 86
Reversal of helpless behavior by serotonin uptake blockers in rats
Martin, P., Soubrié, P., & Puech, A. J. (1990) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02244061 · Cited by 86
Multisystem Regulation of Performance Deficits Induced by Stressors: An Animal Model of Depression
Anisman, H., Zalcman, S., Shanks, N. M., & Zacharko, R. M. (2003) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1385/0-89603-177-2:1 · Cited by 88
Shuttle-box deficits induced by inescapable shocks in rats: Reversal by the beta-adrenoreceptor stimulants clenbuterol and salbutamol
Martin, P., Soubrié, P., & Simon, P. (1986) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(86)90334-5 · Cited by 86
Antidepressant-like effects of the subtype-selective nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, SIB-1508Y, in the learned helplessness rat model of depression
Ferguson, S. M., Brodkin, J. D., Kenneth Lloyd, G., & Menzaghi, F. (2000) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130000531 · Cited by 85
SELECTION AND USE OF STUDY STRATEGIES: THE ROLE OF THE STUDIER'S BELIEFS ABOUT SELF AND STRATEGIES
Palmer, D., & Goetz, E. T. (1988) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-742460-6.50010-4 · Cited by 109
Associations between family structure changes and children’s behavior problems: The moderating effects of timing and marital birth.
Ryan, R. M., & Claessens, A. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029397 · Cited by 85
Learned Helplessness and Psychological Adjustment: Effects of age, gender and academic achievement
Valås, H. (2001) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313830020042689 · Cited by 93
Cognitive Vulnerability-Stress Models of Psychopathology: A Developmental Perspective
Gibb, B. E., & Coles, M. E. (2005) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452231655.n5 · Cited by 83
Uncontrollable, But Not Controllable, Stress Desensitizes 5-HT1AReceptors in the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus
Rozeske, R. R., Evans, A. K., Frank, M. G., Watkins, L. R., Lowry, C. A., & Maier, S. F. (2011) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3095-11.2011 · Cited by 100
Self-citation
Thematic analysis of hip-hop music: Can hip-hop in therapy facilitate empathic connections when working with clients in urban settings?
Kobin, C., & Tyson, E. H. (2006) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2006.05.001 · Cited by 84
The dimensionality of trauma: a multidimensional scaling comparison of police officers with and without posttraumatic stress disorder
Carlier, I. V. E., Lamberts, R. D., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2000) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-1781(00)00211-0 · Cited by 84
Working hard for the money? Efficiency wages and worker effort
Goldsmith, A. H., Veum, J. R., & Darity, W. A. J. (2000) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0167-4870(00)00008-8 · Cited by 84
Learned Helplessness and Expectancy Factors: Implications for Research in Learning Disabilities
Thomas, A. (1979) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.2307/1169959 · Cited by 84
Stressful life events associated with bulimia in anorexia nervosa. Empirical findings and theoretical speculations
Strober, M. (1984) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(198424)3:2 · Cited by 92
Attributional mediators of learned helplessness.
Hanusa, B., & Schulz, R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.8.602 · Cited by 80
Effort and stress influence the effect of lesion of the habenula complex in one-way active avoidance learning
Thornton, E. W., & Bradbury, G. E. (1989) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(89)90217-5 · Cited by 83
Psycho-biological factors associated with underground spaces: What can the new era of cognitive neuroscience offer to their study?
Roberts, A. C., Christopoulos, G. I., Car, J., Soh, C. K., & Lü, M. (2016) · Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tust.2015.12.016 · Cited by 87
Stressor controllability during pregnancy influences pituitary-adrenal hormone concentrations and analgesic responsiveness in offspring
Takahashi, L. K., Kalin, N. H., Barksdale, C. M., Burgt, J. A. V., & Brownfield, M. S. (1988) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(88)90273-9 · Cited by 83
Cognitive interference and learned helplessness: The effects of off-task cognitions on performance following unsolvable problems.
Mikulincer, M. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.1.129 · Cited by 86
Extent and control of shock affects naltrexone sensitivity of stress-induced analgesia and reactivity to morphine
Hyson, R. L., Ashcraft, L. J., Drugan, R. C., Grau, J. W., & Maier, S. F. (1982) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(82)90488-9 · Cited by 83
Self-citation
The lateral habenula and the serotonergic system
Metzger, M., Bueno, D., & Lima, L. B. (2017) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2017.05.007 · Cited by 86
Instrumental learning within the spinal cord: IV. Induction and retention of the behavioral deficit observed after noncontingent shock.
Crown, E. D., Ferguson, A. R., Joynes, R. L., & Grau, J. W. (2002) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.116.6.1032 · Cited by 82
Beyond the talking cure: Somatic experience and subcortical imprints in the treatment of trauma.
van der Kolk, B. A. (2002) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10512-003 · Cited by 82
Acute and chronic stress effects on performance in a forced-swim task
Prince, C. R., & Anisman, H. (1984) · Behavioral and Neural Biology · doi:10.1016/s0163-1047(84)90942-7 · Cited by 82
Automatic and effort-demanding cognitive processes in depression.
Weingartner, H. (1986) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10057-018 · Cited by 82
Do aversive-based training methods actually compromise dog welfare?: A literature review
Guilherme-Fernandes, J., Olsson, I. A. S., & de Castro, A. C. V. (2017) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.07.001 · Cited by 81
Who Shall Decide? The Relevance of Theory and Research to Decision-making by People with an Intellectual Disability
Jenkinson, J. C. (1993) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/02674649366780351 · Cited by 81
Perceived Control and Learned Helplessness Among Mentally Retarded and Nonretarded Children : A Developmental Analysis
Weisz, J. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.15.3.311 · Cited by 18
Yes We Can
Rutjens, B. T., van Harreveld, F., & van der Pligt, J. (2010) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550610361782 · Cited by 80
Anticipatory Control of Approach and Avoidance: An Ideomotor Approach
Eder, A. B., & Hommel, B. (2013) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073913477505 · Cited by 80
Instrumental Learning Within the Spinal Cord: Underlying Mechanisms and Implications for Recovery After Injury
Grau, J. W., Crown, E. D., Ferguson, A. R., Washburn, S. N., Hook, M. A., & Miranda, R. C. (2006) · Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews · doi:10.1177/1534582306289738 · Cited by 81
The Psychoneuroendocrinology of Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhea
Berga, S. L., & GIRTON, L. (1989) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(18)30454-4 · Cited by 80
Corticosterone influences forced swim-induced immobility
Báez, M., & Volosin, M. (1994) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(94)90093-0 · Cited by 80
The application of Bandura's self-efficacy theory to abstinence-oriented alcoholism treatment
Rollnick, S., & Heather, N. (1982) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/0306-4603(82)90051-x · Cited by 80
Cross tolerance between morphine and the long-term analgesic reaction to inescapable shock
Drugan, R. C., Grau, J. W., Maier, S. F., Madden, J. J., & Barchas, J. D. (1981) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(81)90130-1 · Cited by 80
Self-citation
Universal versus personal helplessness in depression: Belief in uncontrollability or incompetence?
Garber, J., & Hollon, S. D. (1980) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.89.1.56 · Cited by 80
Decreased SGK1 Expression and Function Contributes to Behavioral Deficits Induced by Traumatic Stress
Licznerski, P., Duric, V., Banasr, M., Alavian, K. N., Ota, K. T., Kang, H. J., Jonas, E. A., Ursano, R., Krystal, J. H., Duman, R. S., et al. (2015) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002282 · Cited by 79
Legal Consciousness and Cultural Capital
Young, K. M., & Billings, K. R. (2020) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12455 · Cited by 94
Chronic unpredictable stress induces anxiety-like behaviors in young zebrafish
Golla, A., Østby, H., & Kermen, F. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67182-4 · Cited by 84
Expression of fibroblast growth factor-2 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus after uncontrollable or controllable stress
Bland, S. T., Tamlyn, J. P., Barrientos, R. M., Greenwood, B. N., Watkins, L. R., Campeau, S., Day, H. E. W., & Maier, S. F. (2006) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.11.026 · Cited by 82
Self-citation
Powered Mobility and Preschoolers With Complex Developmental Delays
Deitz, J. C., Swinth, Y., & White, O. (2002) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.56.1.86 · Cited by 79
Escape performance after inescapable shock in selectively bred lines of mice: Reponse maintenance and catecholamine activity.
Anisman, H., Grimmer, L., Irwin, J., Remington, G. J., & Sklar, L. S. (1979) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0077557 · Cited by 79
The Paradox of Choice
Schwartz, B. (2015) · Positive Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1002/9781118996874.ch8 · Cited by 77
On the Cognitive Component of Learned Helplessness and Depression
Alloy, L. B., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1979) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60084-5 · Cited by 81
Self-citation
Cerebral lateralization as a source of interindividual differences in behavior
Carlson, J. N., & Glick, S. D. (1989) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf01954054 · Cited by 78
Amphetamine withdrawal: A behavioral evaluation
Kokkinidis, L., Zacharko, R. M., & Anisman, H. (1986) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/0024-3205(86)90501-1 · Cited by 77
Emotions as ComputationsPreprint
Emanuel, A., & Eldar, E. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104977 · Cited by 84
Habenular connections with the dopaminergic and serotonergic system and their role in stress‐related psychiatric disorders
Metzger, M., Souza, R., Lima, L. B., Bueno, D., Gonçalves, L., Sego, C., Donato, J., & Shammah‐Lagnado, S. J. (2019) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14647 · Cited by 82
Sex differences in response to oral amitriptyline in three animal models of depression in C57BL/6J mice
Caldarone, B. J., Karthigeyan, K., Harrist, A. V., Hunsberger, J. G., Wittmack, E. K., King, S. L., Jatlow, P. I., & Picciotto, M. R. (2003) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1518-7 · Cited by 75
Dying cancer patients’ experiences of powerlessness and helplessness
Sand, L., Strang, P. M., & Milberg, A. (2007) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-007-0359-z · Cited by 76
Effects of Stress on Alcohol Consumption in Rats Selectively Bred for High or Low Alcohol Drinking
Chester, J. A., Blose, A. M., Zweifel, M., & Froehlich, J. C. (2004) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000117830.54371.7a · Cited by 76
Self-efficacy expectancies versus outcome expectancies as determinants of performance deficits and depressive affect
Davis, F. W., & Yates, B. T. (1982) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01185724 · Cited by 76
Contextual conditioning in rats as an animal model for generalized anxiety disorder
Luyten, L., Vansteenwegen, D., van Kuyck, K., Gabriëls, L. A., & Nuttin, B. (2011) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0021-6 · Cited by 80
Learned Helplessness Among Families and Surrogate Decision-Makers of Patients Admitted to Medical, Surgical, and Trauma ICUs
Sullivan, D. R., Liu, X., Corwin, D. S., Verceles, A. C., McCurdy, M. T., Pate, D. A., Davis, J. M., & Netzer, G. (2012) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1378/chest.12-0112 · Cited by 75
Unpredictable and uncontrollable events: A new perspective on experimental neurosis.
Mineka, S., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.2.256 · Cited by 301
Investigating anhedonia in a non-conventional species: Do some riding horses Equus caballus display symptoms of depression?
Fureix, C., Beaulieu, C., Argaud, S., Rochais, C., Quinton, M., Henry, S., Hausberger, M., & Mason, G. J. (2014) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2014.11.007 · Cited by 80
Chlordiazepoxide microinjected into the region of the dorsal raphe nucleus eliminates the interference with escape responding produced by inescapable shock whether administered before inescapable shock or escape testing.
Maier, S. F., Kalman, B. A., & Grahn, R. E. (1994) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.108.1.121 · Cited by 74
Self-citation
Right hemisphere involvement in depression: Toward a neuropsychological theory of negative affective experiences
Otto, M. W., Yeo, R. A., & Dougher, M. J. (1987) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(87)90028-x · Cited by 74
Escape deficits following inescapable shock: The role of contextual odor.
Minor, T. R., & LoLordo, V. M. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.10.2.168 · Cited by 74
Connecting Positive Psychology and Organizational Behavior Management
Wiegand, D. M., & Geller, E. S. (2005) · Journal of Organizational Behavior Management · doi:10.1300/j075v24n01_02 · Cited by 72
Descending antinociceptive mechanisms in the brainstem: Their role in the animal's defensive system
Harris, J. A. (1996) · Journal of Physiology-Paris · doi:10.1016/0928-4257(96)87165-8 · Cited by 73
Novelty reward as a measure of anhedonia
Bevins, R. A., & Besheer, J. (2005) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.013 · Cited by 75
Values and Actions in Aversion
Dayan, P., & Seymour, B. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374176-9.00012-9 · Cited by 73

Authors: Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E.
Affiliations: University of Colorado Boulder (US)
ORCID: Maier, Steven F.
Seligman, Martin E.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1976-03
Volume: 105
Issue: 1
Pages: 3-46
ISSN: 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
1939-2222
DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3
OpenAlex: W2022987442
Semantic Scholar: bd0b38c23bb66a0762b0023b0306c86411f47edc
Cited by: 2,494
References: 131
Citations by year: 2026: 105 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 105 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 78 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 66 · 2012: 69
FWCI: 35.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Keywords: learned helplessness, uncontrollability, inescapable shock, escape learning, motivation, cognitive set, stress, rats, human, unsolvable problems, noise aversion

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks