The spacing effect, free recall, and two-process theory: A closer look.
Abstract
Two experiments used procedures similar to those used by R. L. Greene (1989) to test the 2-process theory of the spacing effect and, in particular, the contextual-variability subtheory that applies to free-recall performance. Experiment 1 obtained a spacing effect in free recall following intentional learning but not following incidental learning, contrary to a previous result supporting the 2-process theory. Experiment 2 replicated the incidental-learning results when a slow presentation rate was used. However, with a faster presentation rate, a spacing effect was obtained, and performance exceeded that of the slow-presentation-rate condition at the longest lag. Neither the contextual-variability subtheory of 2-process theory nor an alternative deficient-processing hypothesis was able to account for all of the data.
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According to study-phase retrieval theory, learning improves most when a learner makes most effort to retrieve a previously learned item in a repeated practice session.
“According to the study-phase retrieval theory (e.g., Toppino & Bloom, 2002), for instance, learning improves the most when a learner makes most effort to retrieve a previously learned item in a repeated practice session.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT (2022) · cites this paper as Toppino & Bloom, 2002
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Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition
Glenberg, A. M. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197590 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Effects of repetition as a function of study-phase retrieval
Thios, S. J., & D'Agostino, P. R. (1976) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/0022-5371(76)90047-5 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
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The right time to learn: Mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning
Smolen, P., Zhang, Y., & Byrne, J. H. (2016) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.18 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
(2010) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(10)53003-2 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
The Effects of Spaced Practice on Second Language Learning: A Meta‐Analysis
Kim, S. K., & Webb, S. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12479 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Chen, O., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09613-w · Cited by 62 · see citing works
KASPROWICZ, R. E., MARSDEN, E., & SEPHTON, N. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12586 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT
Suzuki, Y., & Hanzawa, K. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263121000358 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
LI, M., & DEKEYSER, R. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12580 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Using Spacing to Promote Lasting Learning in Educational Contexts: Promises and Challenges
Ebersbach, M., Lachner, A., Scheiter, K., & Richter, T. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000259 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The spacing effect in immediate and delayed free recall
Godbole, N. R., Delaney, P. F., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2014) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.798416 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Toppino, T. C., & Bloom, L. C.
- Affiliations
- Villanova University (US)
- ORCID
- Toppino, Thomas C.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 437-444
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W4246672383
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 0.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- spacing effect, free recall, two-process theory, memory retrieval, serial recall
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Cues, Humans, Memory, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology, Semantics, Space Perception, Time Factors, Vocabulary, Intention
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